هندوستان
د Wikipedia لخوا
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| Motto: Satyameva Jayate Sanskrit: सत्यमेव जयते /sətyəmeːvə ɟəjəteː/ (Truth Alone Triumphs) |
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| ملي ترانه: Jana Gana Mana Sanskrit: जन गण मन /ɟənə gəɳə mənə/ |
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| پلازمېنه | New Delhi |
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| لوی ښار | مومبای (بمبی) | ||||
| (رسمي ژبه/ ژبې) | Hindi, English, and 21 other languages | ||||
| حکومت | Federal republic عبدالکلام Manmohan Singh |
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| خپلواکي - Declared - Republic |
From the United Kingdom 1947-08-15 1950-01-26 |
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| مساحت • ټولټال • اوبه (%) |
3,287,590 km² {{{مساحتي وېش}}} {{{areami²}}} mi² 9.56 |
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| د وګړو شمېر • 2006 est. • 2001 census • ګڼه ګونه |
{{{د وګړو اټکل}}} (2nd) 1,027,000,000 329/km² (19th) {{{د وګړو ګڼه ګونهmi²}}}/mi² |
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| GDP (PPP) • ټولټال • Per capita |
2005 estimate $3.678 trillion (4th) $3400 (125th) |
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| HDI (2003) | 0.602 (127th) – medium | ||||
| پېسه | Rupee (Rs.)1 (INR) |
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| د ساعت توپير • Summer (DST) |
IST (UTC+5:30) not observed (UTC+5:30) |
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| د انټرنېت م.م(TLD) | .in | ||||
| هېوادنی کوډ | {{{هېوادنی کوډ}}} | ||||
| ټيليفوني پېل ګڼ | +91 |
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| {{{پايڅوړ}}} | |||||
هندوستان (هندي: भारत بهارت; دا هم وګورۍ نور نومونه), رسمي د هندوستان جمهوريت (هندي: भारत गणराज्य بهارت ګناراجيا), په سوېلي آسيا کې يو بشپړ خپلواکه هېواد دی. It is the seventh largest country by geographical area, the second most populous country, and the world's most populous democracy.[1] Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of کينډۍ:Km to mi.[2] It borders Pakistan to the west;[3] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, Maldives, and Indonesia.
Home to the Indus Valley civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[4] Four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated here, while Islam, Christianity, Judaism and Zoroastrianism arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-nineteenth century, India became a modern nation-state in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by widespread use of nonviolent resistance as a means of social protest.
India is the world's fourth largest economy in purchasing power and the twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates. Significant economic reforms[5] have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world[6] but it still suffers from high levels of poverty and illiteracy, malnutrition, and environmental degradation. A pluralistic, multi-lingual, and multi-ethnic society, India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.
نيوليک |
[سمادول] آرپوهه
- Main article: Etymology of the names of India
The name India (کينډۍ:PronEng) is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River.[7] The ancient Greeks referred to the ancient Indians as Indoi, the people of the Indus.[8] The Constitution of India and common usage in various Indian languages also recognise Bharat (pronunciation (مرسته·مالومات), /bʰɑːrət̪/) as an official name of equal status.[9] Hindustan (کينډۍ:Audio-IPA-nohelp), which is the Persian word for “Land of the Hindus” and historically referred to northern India, is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India.[10]
[سمادول] تاريخ
- Main article: History of India
Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilization,[11] dating back to 3300 BCE in western India. It was followed by the Vedic Civilization, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country.[12]
The empire built by the Maurya dynasty under Emperor Ashoka united most of South Asia in the third century BCE.[13] From 180 BCE, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, including those led by the Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians and Kushans in the north-western Indian subcontinent. From the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient "India's Golden Age."[14][15] Among the notable South Indian empires were the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, Pallavas, Pandyas, and Cholas. Science, engineering, art, literature, astronomy, and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings.
Following invasions from Central Asia between the tenth and twelfth centuries, much of north India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and later the Mughal dynasty. Mughal emperors gradually expanded their kingdoms to cover large parts of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, flourished, especially in the south. In the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the Mughal supremacy declined and the Maratha Empire became the dominant power. From the sixteenth century, several European countries, including Portugal, Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom, started arriving as traders and later took advantage of the fractious nature of relations between the kingdoms to establish colonies in the country. By 1856, most of India was under the control of the British East India Company.[16] A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, variously referred to as the First War of Indian Independence or Sepoy Mutiny, seriously challenged British rule but eventually failed. As a consequence, India came under the direct control of the British Crown as a colony of the British Empire.
During the first half of the twentieth century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and other political organizations. Led by Mahatma Gandhi, and displaying commitment to ahimsa, or non-violence, millions of protesters engaged in mass campaigns of civil disobedience.[17] Finally, on 15 August, 1947, India gained independence from British rule, but was partitioned, in accordance to wishes of the Muslim League, along the lines of religion to create the Islamic nation-state of Pakistan.[18] Three years later, on 26 January, 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect.[19]
Since independence, India has experienced sectarian violence and insurgencies in various parts of the country, but has maintained its unity and democracy. It has unresolved territorial disputes with China, which in 1962 escalated into the brief Sino-Indian War; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations (as part of British India). In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test.[20] This was followed by five more tests in 1998, making India a nuclear state.[20] Beginning in 1991, significant economic reforms[5] have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, adding to its global and regional clout.[6]
[سمادول] حکومت
- Main article: Government of India
کينډۍ:Indian symbols The constitution of India, the longest and most exhaustive constitution of any independent nation in the world, came into force on January 26, 1950.[21] The preamble of the constitution defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.[22] India has a quasi-federal form of government[23] and a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has three branches of governance: the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary. The President of India is the official head of state[24] elected indirectly by an electoral college[25] for a five-year term.[26][27] The Prime Minister is, however, the de facto head of government and exercises most executive powers.[24] The Prime Minister is appointed by the President[28] and, by convention, is the candidate supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament.[24]
The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People).[29] The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has up to 250 members serving staggered six year terms.[30] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in proportion to the state's population.[30] The Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five year terms.[30]
The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.[31]
India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, twenty-one High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.[32] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.[33] It is judicially independent,[32] and has the power to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the Constitution.[34] The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court.[35]
[سمادول] سياست
- Main article: Politics of India
India is the largest democracy in the world.[1] For most of its democratic history, the federal Government of India has been led by the Indian National Congress (INC).[36] State politics have been dominated by several national parties including the INC, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (CPI), and various regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the "Emergency" declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years.[37]
The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several regional parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.[38] In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various left-leaning parties and members opposed to the BJP.[39]
[سمادول] باندنۍ اړيکې او پوځ
- Main article: Foreign relations of India
Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia. India is one of the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement.[40] After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India's relationship with the Soviet Union warmed at the expense of ties with the United States and continued to remain so until the end of the Cold War. India has fought and won two wars with Pakistan, primarily over Kashmir. India also fought and won an additional war with Pakistan for the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971.
In recent years, India has played an influential role in the ASEAN, SAARC, and the WTO. India has been a long time supporter of the United Nations, with over 55,000 Indian military and police personnel having served in thirty-five UN peace keeping operations deployed across four continents.[41] Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has consistently refused to sign the CTBT and the NPT, preferring instead to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear program. Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened relations with the United States, China, and Pakistan. In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations in South America, Asia, and Africa.
India maintains the third largest military force in the world, which consists of the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force.[19] Auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command also come under the military's purview. The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian armed forces. India also became a nuclear state in 1974 after conducting an initial nuclear test. Further underground testing in 1998 led to international military sanctions against India, which were gradually withdrawn after September 2001. India maintains a "no-first-use" nuclear policy[42] and has a clean record of non-proliferation.[43]
[سمادول] Subdivisions
- Main article: Subdivisions of India
India is a federal republic of twenty-eight states and seven union territories.[36] All states, the union territory of Puducherry, and the National Capital Territory of Delhi have elected governments. The other five union territories have centrally appointed administrators and hence are under direct rule of the President. In 1956, under the States Reorganization Act, states were formed on linguistic basis.[44] Since then this structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is divided into basic units of government and administration called districts. There are nearly 600 districts in India.[45] The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and eventually into villages. کينډۍ:India states
Major Cities:[46] Bangalore • Chennai • Delhi • Hyderabad • Kolkata • Mumbai
[سمادول] جغرافيه
- Main article: Geography of India
India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, sits atop the Indian tectonic plate, the northwestern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate.[47] Its defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift, lasting fifty million years, across the then unformed Indian Ocean.[48] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in the north and the north-east.[48] Plate movement also created a vast trough in the former seabed immediately south of the Himalayas, which was subsequently filled with river-borne sediment,[49] and now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[50] To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Hills, lies the Thar Desert.[51] The original Indian plate now survives as pensinsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extending as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India; these parallel ranges run, west to east, from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand.[52] To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan plateau, flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively,[53] contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude[54] and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.[55]
India's coast is کينډۍ:Km to mi long; of this distance, کينډۍ:Km to mi belong to peninsular India, and کينډۍ:Km to mi to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands.[2] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mud flats or marshy coast.[2]
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[56] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi, nicknamed "Bihar's Sorrow", whose extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers–whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding–include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal,[57] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[58] Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the south-western region of the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.[59] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[60]
India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the dynamics of the monsoons.[61] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[62] Concurrently, the Thar Desert plays a role in attracting moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[61] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: Tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.[63]
[سمادول] ځنګلونه او fauna
- Main article: Flora of India
India, lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, hosts significant biodiversity; it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of flowering plant species.[64] Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; for example, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.[65][66] India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[67] Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment.
Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[68] Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.[67] As a result, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.[64] Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.[69] These include the Asiatic lion, the Bengal tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.
In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[70] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; further Forest Conservation Act[71] was enacted in the year 1980. Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves,[72] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[73]
[سمادول] وټه
- Main article: Economy of India
For most of its post-independence history, India adhered to a quasi-socialist approach with strict government control over private sector participation, foreign trade, and foreign direct investment. However, since 1991, India has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms and reduced government controls on foreign trade and investment.[5] Foreign exchange reserves have risen from US$5.8 billion in March 1991 to well over US$250 billion in the fourth quarter of 2007,[74] while federal and state budget deficits have decreased.[75] Privatization of publicly-owned companies and the opening of certain sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate.[76] With a GDP growth rate of 9.4% in 2006-07, the Indian economy is among the fastest growing in the world.[77] India's GDP in terms of USD exchange-rate is US$1.125 trillion, which makes it the twelfth largest economy in the world.[78] When measured in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP), India has the world's fourth largest GDP at US$4.156 trillion.[19] India's per capita income (nominal) is $820, ranked 128th in the world, while its per capita (PPP) of US$3,700 is ranked