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Hinduism (Sanskrit/Hindi: हिन्दु धर्म; also known as Sanatana Dharma - सनातन् धर्म, and Vaidika Dharma - वैदिक धर्म) is a worldwide religious tradition that is based on the Vedas, and is generally regarded as one of the oldest religions still practised in the world. The term Hinduism is an amorphous concept as Hinduism consists of several schools of thought. Hinduism evolved from a monolithic religion into a multitude of traditions over a period of last 4000 years. It encompasses many religious rituals that widely vary in practice, as well as many diverse sects and philosophies. An array of deities, all manifestations of the one Supreme monistic Brahman, are venerated. It is the third largest religion in the world, with a following of approximately 1 billion people. Ninety-eight percent of Hindus can be found on the Indian subcontinent, chiefly in India. It is noteworthy however that the relatively small Himalayan kingdom of Nepal is the only nation in the world with Hinduism as its state religion.

See Hindu for more about a Hindu and different communities of Hindus.

[سمادول] اصلي عقيدې

The Hindu faiths, practices and philosophies have evolved from the Vedic tradition (Vaidika paramparā), with elements from Buddhism, Jainism and other non-Vedic faiths of India.

[سمادول] ابدي لاره

"Sanātana Dharma" (सनातन धर्म, The Eternal Values), the traditional name of Hinduism, alludes to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure science of consciousness. This consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a transcendental state that exists within and beyond our somatic existence, the unsullied Soul of all. Religion to the Hindu is the eternal search for the divine Brahman (ब्रह्मन्, pronounced as /brəhmən/, nominative singular: ब्रह्म /brəhmə/), the Supreme Immanent and Transcendent Reality or the Cosmic Spirit.

Hinduism's spiritual tradition as both monotheistic and tolerant is expressed in the Rig Vedic verse:

एकं सत् विप्रा बहुधा वदन्ति । RV 1:164:46

ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti

Truth is One, but sages call it by many names.

Hinduism's aspiration is best expressed in the following mantra:

ॐ । असतो मा सद्गमय । तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय । मृत्योर्मामृतं गमय ।।

OM Asato mā sadgamaya, tamaso mā jyotirgamaya, mrityormāmritam gamaya

"OM (Lead me) from falsehood to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality."

[سمادول] بنسټيزې عقيدې

What can be said to be common to all Hindus is the belief in Dharma (individual ethics, duties and obligations), Samsāra (Reincarnation/rebirth), Karma ("actions", leading to a cause and effect relationship), and Mokṣha (salvation) of every soul through a variety of paths, such as Bhakti (devotion), Karma (selfless action) and Jñāna (enlightenment, knowledge), and of course, belief in God (Īshvara / Bhagavān). Reincarnation or the soul's transmigration through a cycle of birth and death, until it attains Mokṣha, is governed by Karma. The philosophy of Karma lays forth the results of free-willed actions, which leave their imprint on the soul or the self, called as ātman. These actions determine the course of life and the life cycle for the soul in its subsequent life. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the Supreme Divine, and lead to a birth with higher consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the Supreme Divine, and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life. All existence, as per Hinduism, from vegetation to mankind, are subjects to the eternal Dharma, which is the natural law. Even Heaven (Svarga Loka) and Hell (Naraka Loka) are temporary. Liberation from this material existence and cycle of birth and death, to join, reach or develop a relationship with the "universal spirit" (depending on belief), is known as Mokṣha, which is the ultimate goal of all Hindus.

The other principles include the Guru-shishya tradition, the Divinity of Word of OM and the power of mantras, manifestations of the divine's spirit in all forms of existence (pantheism); that is an understanding that the essential spark of the Atman/Brahman is in every living being, the concept that all living beings are divine. Another interesting belief is that though the Hindu mythology mentions a class of evil beings (demons, called Asuras or Rākṣhasas), opposed to the celestial spirits (Devas), essential Hindu philosophy does not believe in any concept of a central Devil or Satan. This does not mean that all the evil in the world is attributed to God, but that the evil (deed or thought) is ascribed to human ignorance.

It is highly debatable whether a non-Hindu (by birth, as a foreigner) can become a Hindu or not. Hinduism certainly does not evangelize as Christianity or Islam. Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on this issue, it rather depends upon the Hindu society whether they might consider a foreigner, who has got a dīkṣhā into a Hindu sect, as a Hindu or not.

[سمادول] عمل (يوګا دهرما)

Hinduism includes a variety of practices, primarily spiritual devotion (Bhakti Yoga), selfless service (Karma Yoga), knowledge and meditation (Jñāna or Rāja Yoga). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu Yoga: The Bhagavad Gītā and the Yoga Sūtras. The Upanishads are also important as a philosophical foundation for these practices. The Yogas provide a sort of alternate path (or faiths) that links together various Hindu beliefs, and can also be used to categorize non-Hindu beliefs that are seen as paths to moksha, or nirvāna.

[سمادول] د ژوندانه څلور هدفونه

Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of the puruṣhārthas, the "four objectives of life". They are kāma, artha, dharma and mokṣha. It is said that all beings seek kāma (pleasure, physical or emotional) and artha (material wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within the higher framework of dharma (righteousness). Of course, the only goal that is truly ultimate, whose attainment results in ultimate happiness, is mokṣha (salvation), also known as Mukti (spiritual liberation), Samādhi, Nirvāṇa, or escape from Samsāra (the cycle of births and deaths).

[سمادول] د ژوندانه څلور پړاوونه

Ideally (though not feasible for most of today's lay Hindus), the human life is divided into four Āshramas ("phases" or "stages"). They are Brahmacharya, Gṛihastha, Vānaprastha and Sanyāsa. The first quarter of one's life, Brahmacharya ("meditation, or study of the Brahman") is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under a Guru, building up the mind for the realization of truth. Grihastha is the householder's stage, alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kāma and artha within one's married and professional life. Vānaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world, ostensibly giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in contemplation of the Divine, and making holy pilgrimages. Finally, in Sanyāsa, the individual goes into seclusion, often envisioned as renunciation, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life, and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or, for liberation).

[سمادول] د ټولنې څلور واړه ټولګي

Hindu society has traditionally been divided into four classes, based on profession—the Brāhmanas: teachers and priests; the Kshatriyas: warriors, kings and administrators; the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, herdsmen and businessmen; and the Shūdras: servants and labourers. Each of these classes was called a varna, and the system was called Varna Vyavasthā. It is highly debatable whether the varna system is an integral part of Hinduism or not; and whether or not it is strictly sanctioned by the scriptures. The Shruti texts make very rare mentions of this system at some places, without defining things very much. The Smriti texts (including the Manusmriti) have elaborated the rules about this system. Earlier, the system was only based upon the profession (and character), and there are dozens of instances where people freely changed their professions and freely intermarried. Later, (the historians do not agree as to when) the system became fixed by birth. Thus, with the evolution of several sub-castes (along with a class of outcastes outside the Varna Vyavasthā), the system evolved into the caste system as we know of today. With modernization, caste differences are slowly fading away in modern India, but tension and prejudice still remain.

[سمادول] د خدای طبيعت

The Vedas depict Brahman as the Ultimate Reality, the Absolute or Universal Soul (Paramātman). Brahman is the indescribable, inexhaustible, incorporeal, omniscient, omnipresent, original, first, eternal, both transcendent and immanent, absolute infinite existence, and the ultimate principle who is without a beginning, without an end, who is hidden in all and who is the cause, source, material and effect of all creation known, unknown and yet to happen in the entire universe. Brahman (not to be confused with the deity Brahmā) is seen as a pantheistic Cosmic Spirit. The personality behind Brahman is known as Parabrahman (The superior Brahman). Brahman may be viewed as without personal attributes (Nirguṇa Brahman) or with attributes (Saguṇa Brahman).

Perhaps the best word in Hinduism to represent the concept of God is Īshvara (lit. the Supreme Lord). In Advaita Vedānta philosophy, Īshvara is simply the manifested form of Brahman upon human mind. Thus, according to Smārta views, the Supreme Being can be with attributes, Saguṇa Brahman, and also be viewed with whatever attributes, (e.g., a female goddess) a devotee conceives. For the Hindus, Īshvara, who is one and only one, is full of innumerable auspicious qualities; He is omniscient, omnipotent, perfect, just, merciful, glorious, mysterious, and yet full of love. He is the Creator, the Ruler and the Destroyer of this universe. Some believe Him to be infinite and incorporeal. In Vaishnavism and Shaivism, Saguṇa Brahman is viewed solely as Viṣhṇu or Shiva—so their followers may attribute an anthropomorphic form to Īshvara. Īshvara is also called as Bhagavān in modern Hindi. The divine power (or energy) of God is personified as female or Shakti. However, the Divine and the divine energy are indivisible, unitary, and the same. The analogy is that fire represents the Divine and the actual heat Shakti.

[سمادول] ګڼ شمېر خدايان

The Hindu religion also believes in several celestial entities which are called Devas. These Devas may variously be translated into English as gods (which is rather a mistranslation), or better, as demigods, deities, celestial spirits or angels. The feminine of deva is devī. It is these devas that give the western world a picture that Hinduism is polytheistic. The question who or what these devas are may be analyzed under the following three points:

1. According to the philosophy of Advaita Vedānta, and many verses of Bhagavad Gītā, the Upaniṣhads and the Vedas, all the devas are simply the more mundane manifestations of the Supreme Lord Īshvara upon the human mind, and hence, ultimately, the different manifestations of the One Brahman that the human mind conceives. In order to worship the formless Īshvara, the devotee conceives an anthropomorphic form of God in his mind for the sake of worshipping Him with love and Bhakti. A mention here could be made to one of the fundamental principles of Hinduism is depicted in the following words which have been widely accepted as true over numerous generations—ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti (Ṛig Veda 1.164.46) meaning “The True God is one, though the sages address him by multiple names”. Thus, most Hindus maintain that Īshvara is One and only One, although He can be viewed as having many manifestations such as Viṣhṇu or Shiva or the Mother Goddess—this view is especially true of the Smārta denomination.
2. According to the philosophies of Nyāya, Vaisheṣhika, Yoga, certain verses from the Shrutis and certain Shaivite and Vaishnavite thoughts, the devas are those immortal celestial beings who are subservient to the Supreme Lord Īshvara, but are above human beings. Thus they are the angels who preside over the forces of nature and act as a link between God and the mortal world. For instance, the Yoga philosophy says that Īshvara is the father and guru of all the devas like Prajāpati and Indra, and of the Ṛiṣhis like Aṅgīras. They all derive their power from God, under whose control they always work. Again note that the Vaishnavites and the Shaivites view Vishnu or Shiva respectively to be the same as Īshvara.
3. According to the philosophy of Mīmāṃsā, all the devas and devīs are the sovereign rulers of the forces of nature and there is no one Supreme Īshvara as their Lord. To do a desired action, the humans must please each or several of these devas by worshipping them with proper rituals. This kind of view could be regarded as purely polytheistic. Although the later Mīmāṃsakās had retracted from this view and accepted Īshvara, this view is still held today by a substancial populace of today's Hindus, especially the more illiterate and superstitious ones.

The terms Īshvara and devas must not be confused. Devas could be as numerous as 330 million. Thus, it is false to say that Hinduism has 330 million "Gods", which are more correctly devas or celestial beings; even the liberal Smārta denomination recognizes only six forms of God to be objects of worship; other denominations of Hinduism, such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism follows a singular concept of God, or panentheistic monotheism. More precisely, the Hindu scriptures and most Shaivite and Vaishnavite thoughts regard the devas as a combination of the first two views; e.g., Kriṣhṇa is regarded as Īshvara to whom all the demigods are subservient, and simultaneously, all the demigods are seen as mundane manifestations of Kriṣhṇa. The third view is not supported by the scriptures.

Whatever it is, the devas (also called devatās) are an integral part of the colorful Hindu culture. The 33 early Vedic devas included Indra, Agni, Soma, Varuṇa, Mitra, Savitṛ, Rudra, Prajāpati, Viṣhṇu, Aryaman and the Ashvins; important devīs were Sarasvatī, Ūṣhā and Pṛithivī. Indra is traditionally called the king of the demigods. The later Purāṇas laud the Hindu Trinity of Brahmā, Viṣhṇu and Shiva, i.e., Trimūrti, signifying respectively the creative, ruling and destroying aspects of the same One God. Note that Brahmā, Viṣhnu and Shiva are not regarded as ordinary devas but as Mahādevas. The Purāṇas also laud other devas and avatāras such as Gaṇesha, Hanumān, Rāma, Kriṣhṇa, etc. Devīs, worshipped as the mother, include Lakṣhmī and most importantly, Durgā and her forms such as Kālī. Though all the different paths of salvation are, to various extents, acknowledged by all denominations, the actual conception of Brahman and its nature is what differentiates them. It is important to note that the contemporary perception of Hinduism, influenced by Smārta traditions, depicts an inclusively monotheistic (or monistic) religion, which accordingly holds that the different deities are simply different manifestations of the One God.

[سمادول] Denominations

Main article: Hindu denominations

Each of the Hinduism's four major denominations share rituals, beliefs, traditions and personal deities with one another, but each sect has a different philosophy on how to achieve life's ultimate goal (Mokṣha, salvation) and on their concept of God (Īshvara). However, each denomination respects all others, and conflict of any kind is rare. In fact, many Hindus will not claim to belong to any denomination at all.

Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. The two primary form of differences are between the sects of Vaishnavism which conceives God as Viṣhṇu, and Shaivism which conceives God as Shiva. Vaishnavas make up the majority of Hindus in India. Shaktism worships a female divine or goddess Devī or alternatively (where it is viewed as a sub sect of Shaivism) as the power of Shiva personified. Smartism, in contrast, believes in all religions being the same and leading to a pantheistic God. A number of reform movements have also given rise to sects like Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Ārya Samāj which condemns iconolatry, veneration of multiple deities and focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire-sacrifices (yajña).

[سمادول] Vaishnavism

The Birla Mandir is one of the most famous Vaishnavite temples in India.

Main article: Vaishnavism

A Vaishnavite considers Viṣhṇu (विष्णु) as the Supreme Being, and considers other deities as subordinate (as demigods). Accordingly, many Vaishnavites, for example, believe that Viṣhṇu ultimately grants mokṣha. Vaishnavites consider worship of "other gods" as secondary due to Kriṣhṇa’s (who is a form of Viṣhṇu) sayings in the Gītā:

Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, their wishes are granted by Me (Gītā: 7:21-22)

O Arjuna, even those devotees who worship other subordinate deities (e.g., Devas, for example) with faith, they also worship Me, [but] following non-injunction (Gītā: 9:23).

[سمادول] Shaivism

Main article: Shaivism

Similar to Vaishnavism, many Shaivites hold that Shiva (शिव) is the Supreme Being and all other deities sprung forth from him. They follow either monistic or dualistic philosophies.

[سمادول] Shaktism

Main article: Shaktism

Shāktas worship the Mother Goddess Shakti (or devī) in all of her forms, whilst not rejecting the importance of the masculine divinity. The "History of the Shākta Religion" explains that The Shāktas conceive their Great Goddess as the personification of primordial energy and the source of all divine and cosmic evolution. She is identified with the Supreme Being, conceived as the Source and the Spring as well as the Controller of all the forces and potentialities of Nature. It is associated with Vedānta, Sāṃkhya and Tantra philosophies, is ultimately monist, and has a rich tradition of Bhakti yoga associated with it.

[سمادول] Smartism

Main article: Smartism

Smārtas invariably follow Advaita (monist) philosophy, seeing multiple manifestations emanating from a single source called Brahman. It is seen as ultimate unity, with the personal "gods" (deities) being different manifestations of Brahman which can be called by different names. Smartism is the only branch of Hinduism that adopts these ideas strictly. The Smārtas perspective dominates the view of Hinduism in the West because of the influence of eminent Smārtins like Swami Vivekananda.

[سمادول] د هندوانو مقدسه ليکونه

Main article: Hindu scripture

The overwhelming majority of Hindu sacred texts are composed in the Sanskrit language. Indeed, much of the morphology and linguistic philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and relevant Hindu scriptures.

[سمادول] Shruti

Main article: Shruti

The Vedas (वेद, literally, "Knowledge") are considered as Shruti by the Hindus. They are said to have been revealed by the Brahman to the Ṛiṣhis while the latter were in deep meditation. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the Vedas, there prevails in them a reverence for this transcendental notion of "Eternal Knowledge". The four Vedas (the Ṛig, Yajur, Sāma and Atharva Vedas) are various shākhās or branches of knowledge. Depending on the branch, different commentaries and instructions are associated with each Veda. The Ṛig Veda contains mantras to invoke the devas for the fire-sacrifice rituals, the Sāma Veda has chants to be sung there, the Yajur Veda has actual prosaic instructions for the sacrifices and the Atharva Veda comprises of semi-magical (sic) spells against enemies, sorcerers, diseases and mistakes during the sacrificing ritual. The Vedas, apart from the hymn (mantra) or the Saṃhitā (संहिता) portion, also have three layers of commentaries integrally incorporated within them. These are: the Brāhmaṇas (ब्राह्मण, not to be confused with Brahman) containing prose commentaries on the rituals, the Āraṇyakas (आरण्यक) containing the mystical explanations of the mantras, and the Upaniṣhads (उपनिषद्) containing highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the nature of, and the relationship between the soul (ātman) and the Brahman. Each Veda also has various law books and ritual manuals loosely associated with it, like the Dharmashāstras, Grihyasūtras, etc., but most people do not consider them as an integral part of the Shruti or the Vedic literature.

The Upaniṣhads set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of transcendent and yet multiple immanent forces that is subjective to each individual, seen by some as an identification of unity in diversity. Modern indology suggests that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four Vedas, Classical Hinduism, from the Yoga and Vedanta to Tantra and Bhakti streams, was moulded around the Upaniṣhads. The Vedas are full of mysticism and allegories. While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage people to interpret the Vedas philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally, Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vṛitti) as primary and indirect meaning (gauṇa vṛitti) as secondary: sākṣhād upadesas tu shrutih - "The instructions of the shruti-shāstra should be accepted literally, without so-called fanciful or allegorical interpretations." (Jiva Gosvami, Kṛiṣhna Sandarbha 29.26-27). The very sound of the Vedic mantras is considered as "purifying" by many Hindus, hence the rigour in learning pronunciation. The rigorous oral tradition of transmitting the Vedas has helped in its perfect preservation.

[سمادول] Bhagavad Gita

Main article: Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gītā (भागवद् गीता), often referred to as the Gītā, is one of the more popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is a summary of the Vedic, Yogic, Vedantic and Tantric branches of philosophy. The Bhagavad Gītā, meaning "The Divine Song", refers to itself as a Yoga Upaniṣhad and is sometimes called Gītopaniṣad. It expounds on Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Jñāna Yoga. It is an integral part of the epic Mahābhārata, and contains philosophical sermons taught by Kṛiṣhṇa, an incarnation of Viṣhṇu, to the Pāṇḍava princes just before a great war.

While technically, it is considered as Smṛiti text, it has singularly achieved the status of Shruti, or Revealed Knowledge. The Bhagavad Gītā is described as the essence of the Vedas. The Gītā is easy to follow, and is also one of the most popular books in Hinduism. Unlike the Vedas, which are more esoteric and intricate, the Gītā is read by many practicing Hindus.

[سمادول] Smriti

Main article: Smriti

The other Hindu texts form the latter category—the Smṛitis (lit., "memory"), all of which laud the Vedas; the most notable of them are the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa, major epics considered sacred by almost all followers of Sanātana Dharma. Their stories are arguably familiar to the vast majority of Hindus. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the Shrīmad Bhāgavatam, described as the spotless epic detailing devotion to Viṣhnu as the highest goal, Devī Mahātmya, an ode to Devī, and the Yoga Sūtras, a key meditative yoga text of Shri Patañjali. There are also a number of revered Hindu Tantras, the Manusmṛiti, the 18 Purāṇas which vividly describe later Hinduism's deities and mythology, and Sūtras that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the Mahanirvāṇa Tantra, Tirumantiram and Shiva Sūtras. The eighteen Purāṇas, or Ancients, are divided into three groups of six. The Purāṇas’ groups and their contents are: 1) the Brahmā Purāṇas: Brahma Purāṇa, Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa, Brahma Vaivarta Purāṇa, Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa, Bhaviṣhya Purāṇa, and the Vāmana Purāṇa; 2) the Viṣhnu Purāṇas: the Viṣhnu Purāṇa, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, the Nāradeya Purāṇa, the Garuḍa Purāṇa, the Padma Purāṇa, and the Varāha Purāṇa; and 3) the Shiva Purāṇas: the Vāyu Purāṇa, the Liṅga Purāṇa, the Skanda Purāṇa , the Agni Purāṇa, the Matsya Purāṇa, and the Karma Purāṇa. The Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata and many Purāṇas are much more widely read by today's Hindus than the Vedas, and the temple and icon worship of modern Hinduism is attributable to them. It is interesting to note that the Hindus attach much more importance to the ethics and the metaphorical meanings conveyed by these texts, rather than only the literal mythology. Other important scriptures are the sectarian Hindu Āgamas which are texts related to rituals and worship and is dedicated to Viṣhnu, Shiva and Devī. The Shruti takes precedence over the Smṛiti in any matter of apparent mutual dispute. However, many Vaishnavites regard the Purāṇas to be as authoritative as the Vedas.

[سمادول] Origins and society

[سمادول] Origins of Hinduism

Main article: History of Hinduism

The Sun Temple in Konark, Orissa is one of the most famous stone monument in the world. The temple is conceived as a massive 24-wheel chariot of the Sun God Surya.

Hinduism is one of the world's oldest major religions in existence. From a Hindu perspective, the Sanatana Dharma propounds eternal and universal principles with no beginning or end. The Puranas place Lord Krishna's birth at around 3100 BCE. Krishna's incarnation was preceded by Lord Rama's, sometimes dated at over 5-6000 BCE, or even more than a million years ago in the Treta Yuga according to the Ramayana Epic. Many Hindus believe that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Lord Rama, the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Modern Indology dates the roots of Hinduism to about 1500-1300 BCE, based on linguistic and literary dating of the Rig Veda. This dating is rejected by most Hindus, who reject the validity of the Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis.

The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its later schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a specific time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was revealed to enlightened sages, called Rishis, over a long period of time. Lord Vishnu is believed to have transmitted the Vedas to Lord Brahma via meditative trance at the beginning of each creation.

Hinduism, along with Buddhism and Jainism, is regarded to be an Arya Dharma, meaning, a noble religion.

[سمادول] Etymology

Though linguists and historians haven't reached a consensus, the term Hindu is generally accepted to be derived from the name of the Sindhu (सिन्धु, i.e., the Indus) river, which is known as Hindu in Persian. The term was used for people that lived around or beyond the Sindhu. In this region, the advanced Mohenjo-daro civilization flourished about five thousand years ago. Hinduism, in some form, probably existed long before that. In the Iranian linguistic branch, the /s/ of the Indic branch (as represented by Sanskrit) is cognate with the /h/ sound of Iranian (as represented by Avestan and Old Persian). In the Rig Veda, the Indo-Aryans mention their expanse as sapta sindhu (the land of seven rivers). This became the term Hapta-Hindu in Avesta (Vendidad: Fargard 1.18). Hindu (In-du or In-tu in China) is still used in some languages to denote an Indian or India. The Greek term "India" was originally pronounced Hindia; /h/ became lost as in later Greek there was no character for "h". In modern Persian and Arabic, the term Hindustan denotes the Indian subcontinent, and Hind or Al-Hind is used to denote the Republic of India.

The word Hindu (हिन्दु), possibly due to Iranian influence, in the sense of people of India, is used in some early-medieval Sanskrit texts like BhaviShya Purana, Kalika Purana, Merutantra, Ramakosha, Hemantakavikosha and Adbhutarupakosha. India is also traditionally, but unofficially called Hindustan or Hind in Hindi, Persian and Arabic. Note that the word Hindustan also has other meanings.

Until about 19th century the term Hindu implied a culture and ethnicity and not a religion. When the British government started periodic censuses and established a legal system, the need arose to define Hinduism as a distinct religion, along the lines of Christianity or Islam. Some scholars, such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, defined it as a religion based on the Vedas, using the analogy of the Bible being the basis of Christianity and the Qur'an being the Muslim scripture.

That even an atheist may be called a Hindu is an example of the fact that Hinduism is far more than a simple religious system; it is actually an extremely diverse and complicated river of evolving philosophies and ancient traditions.

[سمادول] Vedic religion

Main article: Vedic religion

Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the Vedas. The earliest of these, the Rigveda centers on worship of the deities Indra and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They would perform fire-sacrifices called yajña (यज्ञ) with the chanting of the Vedic mantras, but they built no temples, idols or icons. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger yajñas, as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The Ashvamedha was the most important sacrifice described in the Yajurveda, possibly performed for the last time by Samudragupta in the 4th century. The age and origins of the Vedas themselves are disputed, but it is clear that they were transmitted orally for several millennia. They show strong similarities to the language and religion of the Avesta, as well as more distantly to other Indo-European languages and religions (see Indo-Aryan migration).

[سمادول] Hindu nationalism

Main articles: Hindu Nationalism, Hindutva, and Hindu Rashtra

In the 20th century, emerging Indian nationalism began to emphasize Hinduism, in opposition to the British Raj, but also in contrast to Islam, and after Independence in connection with the territorial disputes with Pakistan. Such nationalistic Hinduism is generally termed Hindutva ("Hinduness", paradoxically not a well-formed Sanskrit word, since "Hindu" is a Persian word), but the boundaries are fluid and the Indian Supreme Court ruled that "no precise meaning can be ascribed to the terms 'Hindu', 'Hindutva' and 'Hinduism'; and no meaning in the abstract can confine it to the narrow limits of religion alone, excluding the content of Indian culture and heritage." Hindutva ideology was enunciated first by Savarkar in his seminal work 'Hindutva'. Hindutva ideology rose to importance in Indian politics in the 1980s and is chiefly associated with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh movement. It has come to symbolize the rising bi-polarization of Indian polity in the late 1990's and the first decade of the 21st century, evident in the rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in the same period. One of their short term aims is to build a temple to Rama at the site of the controversial Babri mosque (destroyed by some Hindutva activists in 1992) in Ayodhya. Many believe that Lord Rama was born at the site, and that a Vaishnavite temple was constructed there to commemorate the birthplace. Some historians and Hindutva activists claim that the Mughal commander Mir Baki destroyed the temple and built the Babri mosque, in his alleged frenzy of iconoclasm. However, the destruction of the temple is also attributed to the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.

[سمادول] عبادتځايونه

Main article: Mandir

Most of the Hindu temples have their principal shrine facing the rising sun and their entrance facing east. An important aspect of the temple design is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal one. Shown here, is the Meenakshi temple in Tamil Nadu, a southern state of India.

Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some mandirs are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the agama shastras and many are sites of pilgrimage. For many Hindus, the four Shankaracharyas (the abbots of the monasteries of Joshimath,