سابه خوړونکي

For plant-eating, non-human animals, see Herbivore.

Vegetarianism is the practice of not eating meat, including beef, poultry, fish, and their by-products, with or without the use of dairy products or eggs. The exclusion may also extend to products derived from animal carcasses, such as lard, tallow, gelatin, rennet and cochineal. Some who follow the diet also choose to refrain from wearing clothing that involves the death of animals, such as leather, silk, fur and many down feathers. While most vegetarians consume dairy products, veganism is a stricter form which excludes dairy, eggs, honey, and any foods that contain these or other animal products. While the term vegetarianism, in a strict sense excludes all meat and fish, some partial-vegetarian diets use the term in their names, such as Pesco/pollo vegetarianism (excludes red meat but not chicken or fish).

دوتنه:Gnocchi 2 by salsachica.jpg

Gnocchi with mushrooms and tomatoes. Vegetarianism should not be confused with a vegetable-only diet.

تاريخ

Vegetarianism has been common in the Indian subcontinent, for spiritual reasons, such as ahimsa (nonviolence), to avoid indulgences (as meat was considered an indulgence), to reduce bad karmic influences, and for economic reasons.

About 30% of Hindus are vegetarians. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement, it is recommended as a sattwic (purifying) lifestyle.

Jainism enjoins all its followers to be vegetarian. The first precept in the Buddhist monastic and lay ordinations, common to all Buddhist traditions, is not to take life. This is usually understood to include all animal life. Although many lay Buddhists eat meat, vegetarianism is highly regarded. A minority of Muslims also practice (halal) vegetarianism [۱].

The earliest Vedic scriptures advocate a vegetarian diet. The secular literature of Tirukural in Tamil Nadu, India, written over 2000 years ago, has several couplets that proclaim the virtues and goodness of a vegetarian diet.

Vegetarians in Europe used to be called "Pythagoreans" , after the philosopher Pythagoras, who with his followers abstained from meat in the 6th century BC. An apocryphal anecdote, attached to the 6th-century philosopher Empedocles suggests that Pythagoran vegetarians might need alternatives to burnt offerings:

"And Empedocles of Agrigentum, having gained the victory in the horse race at the Olympic games, as he was himself a Pythagorean, and as such abstained from meat, made an image of an ox from myrrh, and frankincense, and the most expensive spices, and distributed it among all who came to that festival."

These people followed a vegetarian diet for nutritional reasons, to keep the four humours of the body in balance, and for ethics. According to the Roman poet Ovid, Pythagoras said: "As long as Man continues to be the ruthless destroyer of lower living beings he will never know health or peace. For as long as men massacre animals, they will kill each other. Indeed, he who sows the seed of murder and pain cannot reap joy and love." Pythagoras also prohibited eating beans, believing they contained human embryos.

In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society in Ramsgate, England, defined a "vegetarian" — from the Latin uegetus "lively", and suggestive of the English word "vegetable" — as a person who refuses to consume flesh of any kind. Vegetarianism in the 19th century was associated with many cultural reform movements, such as temperance and anti-vivisection. Many "new women" feminists at the end of the century were vegetarians.

Seventh-day Adventists and Rastafarians, denominations founded in the 19th and 20th centuries, are also frequently vegetarian. The controversial African Hebrew Israelites follow a vegan diet that also excludes alcohol (except their own wine) and all forms of medication.

Recent trends

Indian vegetarians, primarily lacto-vegetarians, are estimated to make up more than 70% of the world's vegetarians, and about 20-40% of the Indian population. Most Asian countries had a predominantly vegetarian diet until the past few decades, when increasing industrialization and improving economies changed that. Several studies have shown that over the last few decades, there have been large increases in heart disease, various cancers and balding in men and women. Studies in Japan, however, have found that increased consumption of milk, meat and fish coincided with a decrease in cerebrovascular disease (a leading cause of death) and stroke mortality. Differing opinons have linked these contrasting trends with the adoption of an increasingly high-fat, meat-based Western diet.

Surveys in the U.S. have found that roughly 1% to 2.8% of adults do not eat meat, poultry and fish.

In 2002, the UK Food Standards Agency reported that 5% of respondants self-identified as vegetarian or vegan. Of that 5%, approximtely 10% ate white meat, nearly half ate fish and 95% ate dairy. Based on these figures, vegans are approximately 0.25% or less of the UK population. .

Terminology and varieties of vegetarianism

Practices of vegetarianism include:

• Lacto vegetarianism — Lacto vegetarians do not eat meat or eggs but do consume dairy products. Most vegetarians in India and those in the classical Mediterranean lands, such as Pythagoreans, are or were lacto vegetarian.

• Lacto-ovo vegetarianism (also called eggitarian colloquially in India) — Lacto-ovo vegetarians do not eat meat but do consume dairy products and eggs. This is currently the most common variety in the Western world.

• Ovo vegetarianism — Ovo vegetarians do not eat meat or dairy products but do eat eggs.

• Veganism — Those who avoid eating any animal products, including eggs, milk, cheese, and honey, are known specifically as dietary vegans or strict vegetarians. Most additionally avoid using animal products, such as leather and some cosmetics.

The following are less common practices of vegetarianism:

• Fruitarianism is a diet of only fruit, nuts, seeds, and other plant matter that can be gathered without harming the plant. Some fruitarians eat only plant matter that has already fallen off the plant. Thus, a fruitarian will eat beans, tomatoes, cucumbers, pumpkins, and the like, but will refuse to eat potatoes or spinach.

• Natural Hygiene, in its classic form, includes a diet principally of raw vegan foods.

• A raw food diet includes only food, usually vegan, which is not heated above 46.7 °C (116 °F); it may be warmed slightly or raw, but never cooked. Raw foodists argue that cooking destroys enzymes and/or portions of each nutrient. However, some raw foodists believe certain foods become more bio-available when warmed slightly as the process softens them, which more than negates the destruction of nutrients and enzymes. Other raw foodists, called "living foodists", soak the food in water a while before consumption, which they believe activates the enzymes. Some spiritual raw foodists are also fruitarians, and many eat only organic foods.

• A macrobiotic diet is a diet consisting mostly of whole grains and beans and is usually spiritually based, like fruitarianism.

The following similarly named diets are considered varieties of semi-vegetarianism:

• Pesco/pollo vegetarianism — Some people choose to avoid certain types of meat for many of the same reasons that others choose vegetarianism: health, ethical beliefs, etc. For example, some people will not eat "red meat" (mammal meat – beef, lamb, pork, etc.) while still consuming poultry and seafood. It may also be used as an interim diet by individuals who are on a path to becoming fully vegetarian.

• Lacto-ovo-pesco vegetarianism (Vegequarianism) (Lacto-ovo-pesco vegequarianism) — This refers to people who eat milk, eggs, fish, and possibly shellfish, but no other type of meat. Often carried out in opposition to the slaughtering methods of mammilian animals and poultry, but not fish and shellfish. This diet is popular in Japan where it is referred to as the Okinawa diet.

• Flexitarianism — Flexitarians adhere to a diet that is mostly vegetarian but occasionally consume meat. Some, for instance, may regard the suffering of animals in factory farm conditions as their sole reason for avoiding meat or meat-based foods and will eat meat or meat products from animals raised under more humane conditions or hunted in the wild.

• Freeganism — Freegans practice a lifestyle based on concerns about the exploitation of animals, the earth, and human beings in the production of consumer goods. Many tend towards veganism, but this is not an inherent practice. Those that eat meat generally support the arguments for vegetarianism, but as freeganism is concerned about waste, freegans prefer to make use of discarded commodities than to allow them to go to waste and consume landfill space. [۲]

Motivation

مذهبي

آرنۍ ليکنه: Vegetarianism and religion

The majority of the world's vegetarians, according to the Society of Ethical and Religious Vegetarians, follow the practice for religious reasons. Many religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, the Bahá'í Faith, Sikhism, and Jainism, teach that ideally life should always be valued and not willfully destroyed.

Hinduism recommends vegetarianism as a satvic ("purifying") lifestyle [۳]. Approximately 30% of Hindus are full time vegetarians. Anything which is obtained by causing pain, is stale or has a pungent smell is considered non-Satvic. Such foods as meat, garlic and milk from an ill-treated cow are associated with a mental tendency toward Tamas (inertia or destructive activities) or Rajas (desires and fears which lead one to activity). Anything Satvic, including many lacto vegetarian foods, is associated with chastity, moderation and a positive or orderly state of mind. Hindus believe that animals have souls and that killing animals has karmic repercussions that will be reaped later by oneself. Killing animals also violates the principle of ahimsa or non-violence. Vedic texts state "Such sinful persons will be eaten by the same creatures they have killed in this world." [۴] Some practitioners offer food to a deity before eating the 'remnants' known as prasadam and within the Hindu scripture Bhagavad Gita, Krishna makes the statement that he accepts certain vegetarian items offered with love, which some traditions take to be a promotion of vegetarian diet [۵]:

• If one offers Me with love and devotion a leaf, a flower, fruit or water, I will accept it. BG 9.26

Jainism is the only religion that requires monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. The vow of Ahimsa ("non-injury") is the first of the five mahavratas, or great vows. All animal life, and most plant life, is considered sentient. Any action endangering such life, including violence, animal sacrifice, drinking liquor, eating honey, potatoes or certain fruits, and eating at night, is forbidden. Some Jains wear a cloth over their mouths to avoid inhaling airborne life forms.

Different schools of Buddhism have differing opinions on vegetarianism: Chinese Mahayana Buddhists oppose the consumption of meat, and Chinese Mahayana monks observe vegetarianism. The Mahayana schools of Tibetan and Japanese Buddhism do not consider a vegetarian diet to be essential, nor do Theravadin Buddhists, although Theravadin Buddhists will refuse meat if the animal has been killed specifically for them.

The Qur'an is clear about the special lives of animals:

"Seest thou not that it is Allah Whose praise all beings in the heavens and on earth do celebrate, and the birds (of the air) with wings outspread? Each one knows its own (mode of) prayer and praise, and Allah knows well all that they do." Sura 24:41

"There is not an animal (that lives) on the earth, nor a being that flies on its wings, but (forms part of) communities like you. Nothing have We omitted from the Book, and they (all) shall be gathered to their Lord in the end." Sura 6:38

Because of these verses, a Muslim must not eat any animal that has been mistreated in a number of ways [۶]

Roman Catholics were once commanded to abstain from meat on Fridays and the days before certain holidays, which meant they were technically lacto-ovo-pesco vegetarians on such days. The reforms of Vatican II abolished the Friday abstinence, but some more orthodox Catholics still follow the practice.

Nutritional

آرنۍ ليکنه: Vegetarian nutrition

A fruit stall in Barcelona

Most nutritionists state that a diet rich in fresh fruit and vegetables but low in animal fat and red meat offers numerous health benefits, including a significantly lower risk of heart disease, cancer, renal failure and stroke. The American Dietetic Association, the largest organization of nutrition professionals, states on its website "Vegetarian diets offer a number of nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein as well as higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals. Vegetarians have been reported to have lower body mass indices than nonvegetarians, as well as lower rates of death from ischemic heart disease; vegetarians also show lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer." [۷] [۸] The American Heart Association's website states "Many studies have shown that vegetarians seem to have a lower risk of obesity, coronary heart disease (which causes heart attack), high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus and some forms of cancer." [۹] Studies show that a vegetarian mother's breast milk has significantly lower levels of pesticide residue than a non-vegetarian's.

Some vegetable protein sources lack in one or more essential amino acids. For example, grains and nuts are low in lysine and legumes are low in methionine. Vegetarians get all the protein and amino acids they need from eating a normal variety of whole grains (whole wheat bread, oatmeal, brown rice), beans, nuts, and soy (tofu, veggie burgers/hotdogs, edamame, etc). The intake of such foods has to be larger since the protein percentage in these foods are comparatively lower than in a similar serving of meat. Attaining sufficient protein intake is rarely a problem in developed countries and the lower protein intake of vegetarians has even been suggested as a possible cause of some of the health benefits above. A vegetarian diet does not include fish - a major source of Omega 3, though some plant-based sources of it exist such as soy, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, canola oil and, especially, hempseed and flaxseed.

Studies endorsed by the ADA found that vegetarians had levels of iron or calcium similar to non-vegetarians.[۱۰] Some claim that Vitamin B-12 and zinc from vegetarian sources other than dairy products and eggs are not readily absorbed by the body and a vegan diet usually needs supplements. [۱۱].

اخلاقي

آرنۍ ليکنه: Ethics of vegetarianism

Many vegetarians consider the production, subsequent slaughtering and consumption of meat or animal products as unethical. Reasons for believing this are varied, and may include a belief in animal rights, or an aversion to inflicting pain or harm on other living creatures. The belief also exists among vegetarians that other lives should not have to end in order for theirs to continue. In developed countries, ethical vegetarianism has become popular particularly after the spread of factory farming, which has reduced the sense of husbandry that used to exist in farming and led to animals being treated as commodities. Many believe that the treatment which animals undergo in the production of meat and animal products obliges them to never eat meat or use animal products.

چاپېريالي

آرنۍ ليکنه: Environmental vegetarianism

Environmental vegetarianism is the belief that the production of meat and animal products at current and likely future levels is environmentally unsustainable. Industrialization has led to intensive farming practices and diets high in animal protein, primarily in developed nations such as the United States. According to the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) "Most of the world's population today subsists on vegetarian or near-vegetarian diets for reasons that are economic, philosophical, religious, cultural, or ecological." [۱۲] Thus, the main protest of environmental vegetarians is primarily of intensive farming in developed nations.

According to the United Nations Population Fund "Each U.S. citizen consumes an average of 260 lb. of meat per year, the world's highest rate. That is about 1.5 times the industrial world average, three times the East Asian average, and 40 times the average in Bangladesh." [۱۳]

All modern, intensive farming practices consume large amounts of fossil fuel and water resources and have led to emissions of harmful gases and chemicals. The habitat for wildlife provided by large industrial monoculture farms is very poor, and modern industrial agriculture is a threat to biodiversity compared with farming practices such as organic farming, permaculture, arable, pastoral, and rainfed agriculture.

Animals fed on grain, and also those which rely on grazing, need far more water than grain crops [۱۴]. According to the USDA growing the crops necessary to feed farmed animals requires nearly half of the United States' water supply and 80% of its agricultural land. Additionally, animals raised for food in the U.S. consume 90% of the soy crop, 80% of the corn crop, and a total of 70% of its grain. [۱۵]. In tracking food animal production from the feed trough to the dinner table, the inefficiencies of meat, milk and egg production range from 4:1 energy input to protein output ratio up to 54:1. [۱۶] The result is that producing animal based food is typically much less efficient than the harvesting of grains, vegetables, legumes, seeds and fruits. This criticism could not be applied to animals that are grazed rather than fed, especially those grazed on land that could not be used for other purposes. However, this type of grazing is becoming less common worldwide, being substituted with intense farming, and in some cases leads to topsoil loss.

Environmental vegetarianism can be compared with economic vegetarianism. An economic vegetarian is someone who practices vegetarianism from either the philosophical viewpoint concerning issues such as public health and curbing world starvation, the belief that the consumption of meat is economically unsound, part of a conscious simple living strategy or just out of necessity. According to the WorldWatch Institute "Massive reductions in meat consumption in industrial nations will ease the health care burden while improving public health; declining livestock herds will take pressure off of rangelands and grainlands, allowing the agricultural resource base to rejuvenate. As populations grow, lowering meat consumption worldwide will allow more efficient use of declining per capita land and water resources, while at the same time making grain more affordable to the world's chronically hungry." [۱۷]

فيزيولوجيکي

Some researchers contend that humans are physiologically better suited to a vegetarian or semi-vegetarian diet. These individuals study statistical information, such as comparing regional life expectancy with local diets. For example, one of the world's highest life expectancy rate is in Japan, where their primarily fish-based diet is considered to be the reason behind their longevity [۱۸]. Other examples include looking within countries themselves. For instance, life expectancy is considerably greater in southern France where a semi-vegetarian Mediterranean diet is common (fresh fruit, vegetables, olive oil, goat's cheese and fish), than northern France where an omnivore diet is more common (also including pork, beef, butter, cow's cheese and cream) [۱۹] [۲۰].

Many other influences come into life expectancy, such as pollution, genetics, exercise and lifestyle (alcohol, smoking, stress etc), making it difficult to scientifically prove any correlation between regional diets and life expectancy.

Some vegetarian beliefs (such as Hare Krishna) suggest that human beings are "designed" to consume vegetable matter rather than meat. The reasons are mainly associated with the differences between predators and plant-eating animals. The argument, however, is based on comparing herbivores to carnivores (who eat nothing but meat) rather than omnivores (who eat varied diets).

Other vegetarians assert that human teeth, claws and intestine length are more like herbivorous animals than carnivores. They argue that the human "canine teeth" are unlike the canine teeth of actual canines, which are longer and pointed, and that some herbivorous animals (such as gorillas) possess canine teeth. They further argue that humans have molar teeth like herbivores and unlike carnivores. The argument, however, is based on comparing herbivores to carnivores (who eat nothing but meat) rather than omnivores (who eat varied diets). Others argue that humans suck water like herbivores rather than lap it with their tongue like most predators such as dogs and lions.[۲۱] However, dogs are likely omnivores by nature and the link, if any, between how an animal drinks and what it normally eats is far from clear. In reality humans have a comparatively simple digestive systems with intestines of moderate length. The human small intestine averages eight times human body length compared to a cat's (roughly three) and horses (roughly 12). Unlike true herbivores humans do not have organs that can digest the main component of plants, cellulose.

ساپوهنيز

Many vegetarians choose to be so in part because they find meat and meat products aesthetically unappetizing. Proponents assert that human beings are not instinctively attracted to eating live or dead meat in nature. For example, the carcass of a cow lying in a forest would attract a real carnivore like a wolf or leopard, but would disgust most human beings. The metaphor by the poet Douglas Dunn is that if one gives a young child an apple and a live chicken, the child would instinctively play with the chicken and eat the apple, whereas if a cat was presented with the same choices, its natural impulse would be the opposite. [۲۲] Other poetic metaphors suggest that humans are designed to soar through the clouds, like birds, or climb mountains, like goats. No one has reasonably argued that either is the case.

Food safety

Various animal food safety scares over recent years have led people towards semi-vegetarianism or vegetarianism. These scares have included BSE in cows, avian flu in poultry, foot-and-mouth in sheep, salmonella in eggs, PCBs in farmed salmon and high dioxin levels in animal products.

Advocates such as Howard Lyman and groups such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals have promoted vegetarianism in response to cases of E.coli infection and BSE, believed to be transmitted to humans through beef. According to various organisations, vCJD is strongly linked with exposure to the BSE agent [۲۳]. However, E.coli can be acquired from any excrement-contaminated food (such as produce fertilized with manure) or human commensal bacteria.

ټولنيز

Some people are vegetarian because they were raised in a vegetarian household. Others may have become vegetarians because of a vegetarian partner, family member, or friend. Some people live in a predominantly vegetarian society (such as India), and so adopt this practice to avoid ostracism, for the difficulty of buying meat in such a society, or out of economic necessity.

روحاني

Some adherents of Eastern religions, such as Mahatma Gandhi, claim that spiritual awareness and experiences are greatly enhanced on a vegetarian diet. In the Western world there are also individuals like James Redfield who, independent from any specific religious beliefs, share the same sentiment.

Vegetarian cuisine

آرنۍ ليکنه: Vegetarian cuisine

This generally means food which excludes ingredients under which an animal must have died, such as meat, meat broth, cheeses that use animal rennet, gelatin (from animal skin and connective tissue), and for the strictest, even some sugars that are whitened with bone char (e.g. cane sugar, but not beet sugar) and alcohol clarified with gelatin or crushed shellfish and sturgeon.

Country specific information

Labeling used in India to distinguish vegetarian products from non-vegetarian ones.

• In India vegetarianism is usually synonymous with lacto vegetarianism, although lacto-ovo vegetarianism is practiced as well. 30% of Indians are estimated to be vegetarians and vegetarian restaurants (almost always lacto vegetarian) abound. There are usually many vegetarian (Shakahari (~plant-eater) in Hindi) options available in all restaurants ('hidden' meat ingredients such as lard, gelatin, meat stock are not used in the traditional cuisine). India has devised a system of marking any edible product with a green dot in a green square to signify that only vegetarian ingredients were used and that no 'hidden' meat ingredients were used. A red dot in a red square is meant to convey that one or more ingredients used are of non-vegetarian content or 'hidden' meat ingredients like gelatin, lard, or meat stock may have been used. Even medicines are marked similarly, a famous Omega 3 capsule uses flax seeds to extract omega-3 fatty acids. But it is marked with a Red dot since the capsule uses non vegetarian ingredients.
• In the United States, vegetarianism is usually synonymous with lacto-ovo vegetarianism. However, vegetarians are sometimes wrongly assumed to be pesco/pollo vegetarians who will tolerate some meat. Many restaurants and caterers provide vegetarian options to patrons, often explicitly indicated as such. It is also possible to order a vegetarian meal and be served meat. Polls find that 2.8% of Americans are vegetarian as of 2004 [۲۴]. In addition, vegetarianism in the United States generally reflects regional cultural differences. It is more difficult to find vegetarian options in rural restaurants than in urban ones. The same applies to Midwestern city restaurants compared to West Coast restaurants. This seems to be slowly changing as vegetarian market innovations (such as veggie burgers) attain wider acceptance, demand, and distribution.
• In the UK, voluntary labelling of vegetarian foods is widespread, but far from universal. Many manufacturers will label food as "suitable for vegetarians", but until recently, no universally agreed definition existed. The Food Standards Agency issued guidance on the labeling of foods as suitable for vegetarians in 2006, which includes the following definition "The term ‘vegetarian’ should not be applied to foods that are, or are made from or with the aid of products derived from animals that have died, have been slaughtered, or animals that die as a result of being eaten. Animals means farmed, wild or domestic animals, including for example, livestock poultry, game, fish, shellfish, crustacea, amphibians, tunicates, echinoderms, molluscs and insects." [۲۵] In addition, the Vegetarian Society operates a scheme where foods that meet its strict criteria can be labelled as "Vegetarian Society-approved". Cheese is often labelled as well, making it possible to identify cheeses that have been made with non-animal rennet. Flavourings in ingredients lists do not need to specify if they come from animal origin, which can make identifying vegetarian foods difficult if they are not otherwise labelled as such. 5% of the UK are estimated to be vegetarians. The British Vegetarian Society regards a product as vegetarian if it is free of meat, fowl, fish, shellfish, meat or bone stock, animal or carcass fats, gelatin, aspic, or any other ingredient resulting from slaughter, such as rennet. Where eggs are used, they must be free range, and the product should not have involved animal testing. [۲۶]. Almost all restaurants and cafes provide a reasonable selection of vegetarian dishes and are usually clearly labelled as vegetarian.

Vegetarian restaurant buffet, Taipei, Taiwan.

• In Ireland, food labelling is in place. Vegetarianism is not as common as in Great Britain, but dining is still easy for vegetarian tourists.
• In Spain, most vegetarian meals will be served with egg, or even tuna. Stock is normally used in vegetable soups and many sauces. Outside the largest cities or tourist areas, most restaurants only have starters or tapas that are suitable for vegetarians, with nearly all main courses consisting of meat or fish.
• In France the situation is similar to that in Spain. French cuisine does have vegetarian dishes, but these are often considered as starters or side dishes, and the pièce de résistance is almost always meat or fish.
• In Germany vegetarians make up 7.3 - 9% of the population. There is no food labelling in place, and buying only vegetarian foods can involve having to read the fine printed ingredients list ("Zutaten") on many food products. Wholefood retailers providing sources for vegetarian foods are commonplace, even in remote areas.
• In Australia the same conditions apply as in Germany. Some manufacturers who target the vegetarian market will label their foods, however except for foods intended for export to the United Kingdom, this labelling can be inconsistent. Flavourings in ingredients lists do not need to specify if they come from animal origin. As such, natural flavour could be derived from either plant or animal sources. Some food products in Australia are unnecessarily vegetarian unfriendly such as putting gelatine into yoghurt, and vegetarian cheese is not nearly so available as in the UK.
• In Norway, conditions are similar to Germany, except pollo-vegetarianism is largely unknown and organic foods stores are less wide spread. Ovo-lacto-vegetarians make out 1-2% of the population, and food targeted for vegetarians is sold mainly in health food stores and supermarkets that focus on selection. Many restaurants will have one or perhaps two vegetarian entries on the menu, or at least produce something on request.
• In Switzerland, conditions and attitudes largely depend on the linguistic region, highlighting the strong cultural influence of the neighboring countries on French, German and Italian-speaking Swiss. The conditions in French-speaking Switzerland are much like those of deep rural France, ranging from complete ignorance of vegetarianism to a superficial knowledge for the exotic and fadish value. In spite of cosmopolitan Geneva, there are no vegetarian restaurants in French-speaking Switzerland, and few places (aside from a few Asian restaurants and American fast food outlets) offer vegetarian dishes. Labelling of food is inconsistent and can vary from acceptable to nonexistent.
• In Denmark there are some vegetarian resturants (mostly in urban locations) but most restaurants will on request be able to produce a dish without meat. Non-meat side-dishes are common. Vegetarianism is more accepted than ever, but many traditional families will still eat a lot of meat and few vegetables. Vegetarianism is uncommon in provincial areas where traditional Danish cooking is still very common (see Danish Cuisine). There is no distinctive labelling in place.
• In Italy formal vegetarianism is uncommon. However the cuisine is vegetarian-friendly as the first course is usually pasta, risotto (rice) or polenta based, while the second course is simply a cut of meat or fish; most vegetarians are happy for restaurants/hosts to provide a larger first course and to forego the meat course.

سابه خوړونکې ټولنې

Vegetarian societies (apart from India) were first formed in majority meat eating European countries both as a means to promote the diet and to gather together vegetarians for mutual support. By 2000, most western and developing nations had functioning vegetarian societies. The countries that were first to establish societies are still the ones most likely to have the greatest proportion of vegetarians within their populations.

The first societies were:

• 1847 — United Kingdom
• 1850 — United States of America
• 1867 — Germany
• 1880 — France
• 1886 — Australia
• 1889 — India
• 1890 — Ireland
• 1893 — Switzerland
• 1894 — Netherlands
• 1895 — Sweden
• 1896 — Denmark
• 1896 — Hungary
• 1899 — Belgium
• 1900 — Austria

The International Vegetarian Union [۲۷], a union of all the national societies, was founded in 1908.

نيوکه

Vegetarian diet and longevity

Some question the claims of better health in vegetarians. The study "Mortality in British vegetarians: review and preliminary results from EPIC-Oxford" [۲۸] concluded that lower mortality in British vegetarians was best explained by behaviours other than their non-consumption of meat. The review states that "British vegetarians have low mortality compared with the general population. Their death rates are similar to those of comparable non-vegetarians, suggesting that much of this benefit may be attributed to non-dietary lifestyle factors such as a low prevalence of smoking and a generally high socio-economic status, or to aspects of the diet other than the avoidance of meat and fish." A related review, "Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies" [۲۹], also tried to isolate lurking variables in 6 studies of vegetarian diets. The results suggested that the mortality ratio was the lowest in fish eaters (0.82) followed by occasional meat eaters and vegetarians (0.84) which was then followed by regular meat eaters (1.0) and vegans (1.0) [۳۰]. As a group, vegetarians had a 24% lower mortality of ischemic heart disease compared to regular meat eaters.

Many vegetarians and vegans refuse to drink milk or eat meat on the grounds that these foods contain foreign, and possibly disruptive animal hormones. However, many popular meat and milk alternatives, most notably soybean products, can themselves contain high amounts of phytoestrogen[۳۱] and other possibly harmful chemicals. Some studies have linked soybean-derived phytoestrogens to developmental damage in infants, as well as to possible male infertility.

چاپېريال

Some question the assumption that food given to livestock could instead be used to feed humans. In developing countries particularly, such food is usually of poor quality and not fit for human consumption, though the land it utilizes could be turned over to human food production. Moreover, in a largely agrarian economy, the fertile lands are seldom used solely for livestock feed production, instead crops (cash crops included) are cultivated with human consumption in mind. The resulting by-products are often fed to cattle and other animals, making it mutually sustaining. Cornell scientists have advised that the U.S. could feed 800 million people with grain that livestock eat [۳۲]. However, some argue that diverting this grain away from livestock would not resolve the economic causes that prevent starving (poor) people from buying food [۳۳], though a depression in prices due to increased supply may afford them more access, at least in the short term.

Also, there exist some types of terrain (such as mountains, desert fringes, and regions with very poor soil) that are suitable for grazing animals, but not suitable as farmland. Environmentalists counter that these "marginal lands" should not be used at all, and that grazing livestock on these lands exerts more pressure than they can carry and/or directly competes with native wild animal species which would graze the same land. However, many peoples in the developing world rely on these lands for raising hardy animals, such as goats and cattle, which are then used as a crucial food source. If herd sizes are moderated, damage to the land can be prevented, and the human residents are also able to maintain economic independence.

دا هم وګورۍ

• List of vegetarians
• List of vegans
• List of vegetarian communities
• Christian vegetarianism
• Breatharianism
• Economic vegetarianism
• Fruitarianism
• Natural Hygiene
• Simple living
• Veganism
• Vegetarian cuisine
• Vegetarianism and religion
• Nambassa vegetarian festivals New Zealand

غوره ګڼل شوې لوستنې

• Animal Ingredients A to Z (1997) by: EG Smith Collective
• Becoming Vegan: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Healthy Plant-Based Diet (2000) by: Brenda Davis, RD; Vesanto Melina, MS, RD
• Being Vegetarian for Dummies (2001) by: Susan Havala
• Deep Vegetarianism (1999) by: Michael Allen Fox
• Diet for a New America: How Your Food Choices Affect Your Health, Happiness and the Future of Life on Earth (1998, 2nd edition) by: John Robbins
• Diet for a Small Planet (1991, 4th edition) by: Frances Moore Lappe
• Don't Drink Your Milk!: New Frightening Medical Facts About the World's Most Overrated Nutrient (1997) by: Frank A. Oski
• Help! My Child Stopped Eating Meat!: An A-Z Guide to Surviving a Conflict in Diets (2004) by: Carol Adams
• Hopes's Edge: The Next Diet for a Small Planet (2003) by: Frances Moore Lappe, Anna Lappe
• Living Among Meat Eaters: The Vegetarian's Survival Handbook (2003) by: Carol Adams
• Religious Vegetarianism: From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama (2001) edited by: Kerry Walters; Lisa Portmess
• The China Study : The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-Term Health (2005) by: T. Colin Campbell
• The Food Revolution: How Your Diet Can Help Save Your Life and Our World (2001) by: John Robbins
• The Inner Art of Vegetarianism : Spiritual Practices for Body and Soul(2000) by: Carol Adams
• The New Becoming Vegetarian: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Healthy Vegetarian Diet (2003) by: Vesanto Melina, RD; Brenda Davis, RD
• The Vegan Diet As Chronic Disease Prevention: Evidence Supporting the New Four Food Groups (2003) by: Kerrie Saunders
• The Vegan Sourcebook (2000) by: Joanne Stepaniak
• Vegan: The New Ethics of Eating (2000) by: Erik Marcus
• Vegetarianism: A History (2004) by: Colin Spencer
• Vegetarianism : Living a Buddhist life series (2004) by: Bodhipaksa
• Vegetarianism: Movement or Moment? (2002) by: Donna Maurer

باندنۍ تړنې

• Autointoxication, by Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, M.D. provides excellent research and explanation into why the human diet should consist of no meat--and low protein
• This is Dr. John Harvey Kellogg's essay defending and arguing for vegetarianism as the natural diet for all Animalia
• ChooseVeg.com, info on reasons for vegetarianism and tips for making the switch
• Which E-numbers and additives are from animal origin ?
• Vegetarianism and Spirituality
• Protein Basics Chart: tells how much and what kinds of proteins are required for different lifestyles and has detailed charts showing how much protein is in various foods.
• Beyond Vegetarianism
• The basics on vegetarianism
• Islamic (Halal) Vegetarianism [۳۴]
• Vegetarianism and Health
• Vegetarian Protein Table
• Veggie Meet