روسي نیهیلیستي خوځښت
روسي نیهیلیستي خوځښت (یا له هر ډول باورونو څخه منکر روسي خوځښت) د ۱۹مې پېړۍ په وروستیو او د شلمې پېړۍ په لومړیو کې د روسیې په سترواکۍ کې هغه فلسفي، کلتوري او انقلابي خوځښت و چې د نیهیلېزم (بې باورۍ) پراخې فلسفې ترې سرچینه واخیسته. په روسي کې د نیګېلېزم (nigilizm) کلمه (په روسي: нигилизм؛ له لاتین نیهیل یا nihil اخیستل شوې چې د «هیڅ شي» په معنا ده) په اخلاقو، مذهب او سنتي ټولنو باندې د بې وقفې نیوکو لپاره رامنځته شوه. دغه خوځښت له دې سره چې تر اوسه بې نومه دی له هغو ځوانو راډیکالانو رامنځته شو چې د پخوانیو ټولنیزو اصلاح غوښتونکو او همدارنګه د پخوانیو روڼ آندو اشرافو او نوو راډیکال روڼ آندو ترمنځ یې د مخ پر زیاتوالي فاصلې څخه الهام اخیست. [۱][۲]
روسي انارشېست پیټرکروپوتکین، هماغه ډول چې په بریټانیکا پوهنغونډ کې راغلي، «نیهیلېزم یې د فردي آزادیو پر وړاندې د هر ډول استبداد او ریاکارۍ د ضد په توګه تعریف کړی». روسي نیهیلېزم د نیهیلېستي فلسفې د لومړي ډول په توګه موجود ټول اخلاقیات، فلسفه، دین، ښکلاپوهنه او ټولنیز بنسټونه بې ارزښته او بې معنی بلل، اما لزوما په بشپړه توګه اخلاق، علم او انساني ژوند یې بې معنا نه بلل. ورته مهال یې د روسیې د روڼ آندۍ په دوره کې د خپل متن د بیاځلي رغونې او د خلکو جذبولو په موخه د شدید جبر، بې خدايي، ماده پرستۍ، مثبت پالنې او ځان غوښتنې نظریات په ځان کې رانغاړل او ورته مهال یې د خپلو پخوانیو نسلونو له خوا لویدیځ پالونکي چلن ته له پام کولو مخ اړاوه. روسي نیهیلېزم د افراطي اخلاقي شکاکیت فضا رامنځته کړه او ځینې مهال یې له څرګندې ځان غوښتنې څخه ستاینه کوله او له هغو کسانو یې دفاع کوله چې ځانونه یې له هر ډول اخلاقي اقتدار څخه معاف ګڼل. په خپلو کاملو اشکالو کې یې د مشترکو آرمانونو له امکان هم انکار کاوه او پر ځای یې د نسبیت پلوه او فرد پلوه نظریاتو څخه ملاتړ کاوه. دا اټکل شوې چې نیهیلېستان د روسیې له ارتدوکس مذهبي چارواکو او همدارنګه د واکمنو کورنیو او تزاري استبداد سره په شخړه اخته وو. [۳][۴][۵][۶][۷][۸]
په داسې حال کې چې تر ډېره پورې نیهیلېستان انقلابي افعالو ته اړوند دي، خو ډیری نیهیلېستان په اصل کې سیاسي کسان نه و او پر ځای یې له سیاست څخه د بشریت د یوې منسوخې مرحلې په توګه مخ اړاوه. هغوی په دې باوري و چې تر هغه مهاله چې یوه ویجاړونکې طرحه په اوسنیو شرایطو غلبه ونکړي، هېڅ جوړونکې طرح نشي کولای په سمه توګه تدوین شي په داسې حال کې چې یو شمېر نیهیلېستانو د ټولیزو اصولو په پراختیا پیل وکړ خو په دغه برخه کې د هغوی فرمولونه ناڅرګند پاتې شول. په ۱۸۶۲ زکال کې په عمدي بڼه د انقلابونو په له منځه وړو او همدارنګه په ۱۸۶۰مه او ۱۸۷۰مه لسیزه کې د ګڼ شمېر ترورونو او د ترورونو په هڅو سره چې بالاخره یې په ۱۸۸۱ زکال کې تزار دویم الکساندر هم ترور کړ روسي نیهیلېزم په ټوله اروپا کې د سیاسي ترهګرۍ او له تاوتریخوالو څخه د ډکو جرمي دوکتورینو په توګه توصیف شو. کروپوتکین استدلال کوي، په داسې حال کې چې له تاوتریخوالۍ او ترهګرۍ څخه ګټنه کېدله خو دا د ځانګړې انقلابي مخینې له امله وه او په ذاتي بڼه نیهیلستي فلسفه نه وه؛ ورته مهال تاریخ لیکونکی مایکل الن ګلسپي څرګندوي چې له دې سره نیهیلېزم په روسیې کې د انقلابي تفکر اصلي هسته جوړوله چې بالاخره د روسیې د انقلاب لامل وګرځېده. پروفیسور توماس جې. جې. الیتزر زیاتوي چې روسي نیهیلېزم په واقعیت کې د شلمې پېړۍ په بلشویستي نیهیلېزم باندې ژور اغېز درلود. [۹][۱۰][۱۱][۱۲][۱۳]
تعریف
[سمول]د نیهیلېزم له اصطلاح څخه په پراخه کچه په لویدیځ کې د روسیې د خوځښت په ځانګړې توګه د هغو د انقلابي چارو اړوند ناسمه ګټنه شوې. د لویدیځو مبصرینو له خوا د دغې ناسمې ګټنې اړوند په نقد کې سرګی سټپیناک – کراوچینسکي څرګندوي چې انقلابیونو ځانونه یوازې سوسیالېست انقلابیون یا غیررسمي راډیکالان بلل. ورته مهال له روسیې بهیر د نیهیلست اصطلاح په ناسمه توګه د دغه هېواد ټول انقلابي چاپېریال ته کارول شوې. د بریټانیکا پوهنغونډ، په روسي نشریاتو کې د دغې اصطلاح لومړنۍ احتمالي کارونه نیکولای نادژدین ته اړونده بولي چې د واسیلي بروي او له هغه وروسته د ویساریون بلینسکي له خوا له شک او تردید سره مترادفه کارول شوې. له دې څخه وروسته نیهیلېزم د اخلاقي اصولو د رد کوونکې په توګه د مشهور محافظه کار ورځپاڼه لیکونکي میخائیل کاتکوف له خوا د یو انقلابي ټولنیز ګواښ په توګه تفسیر شوې. له دغه اصطلاح څخه هغه مهال ګټنه وشوه چې د ماتریالېزم (ماده پرستۍ) تورونه په کافي کچه نور توهین کوونکي نه و. [۱۴][۱۵][۱۶]
د نیهیلیستي خوځښت فکري ریښه کولای شو په ۱۸۵۵ زکال او یا هم له هغو وړاندې ومومو، چې په اصل کې د اخلاقي او معرفتي شکاکیت فلسفه وه. ورته مهال دغه اصطلاح د لومړي ځل لپاره په ۱۸۶۲ زکال کې هغه مهال شهرت وموند کله چې ایوان تورګنیف د پلرونو او زامنو (Fathers and Sons) په نامه په خپل مشهور ناول کې د سنت ګرایانو او مترقي اصلاح غوښتونکو (sorokovniki) په نسبت د ځوان نسل (šestidesjatniki) لپاره وکاروله. دا هغه مهال و چې وګړي د ۱۸۶۱ زکال د آزادۍ بخښونکو اصلاحاتو سره مخ و او هغوی ماته خوړلي بلل کېدل. د تورګنیف د ناول تخیلي شخصیتونو د ځان لپاره په خپل زړه نومونه ټاکل او څرګندوله یې چې اوس مهال رد کول تر ټولو ضروري چاره ده او په دې ترتیب یې له هرڅه څخه انکار کاوه. په دې توګه د محافظه کارانو او ځوان نسل ترمنځ د دغه ناول په پراخه هرکلي او همدارنګه آن هلته چې دغه ناول وه نه منل شو حد اقل دغه نوم ومنل شو. [۱۷][۱۸][۱۹][۲۰][۲۱][۲۲][۲۳]
د ریالېست (واقعیت پالونکي) اصطلاح د دیمتري پیساروف له خوا د نیهیلیستي دریځ د توصیف په موخه وکارول شوه او همدارنګه د یو ادبي خوځښت نوم هم ادبي ریالېزم کېښودل شو چې په روسیه کې له پوشکین وروسته وغوړېد. په داسې حال کې چې پیساورف له هغو کسانو څخه و چې له نیهیلېزم څخه هرکلی یې وستایه خو د ریالېزم اصطلاح کېدای شي د ذهنیت پالنې او نشتون توب مفاهیم چې پر نیهیلېزم باندې یې بار زیاتوه او د متافزیک، سوفیست (بلاغت پالنې)، احساسات پالنې او ښکلاپېژندنې مفاهیم یې ساتل له ځانه لرې کړې وي. په پام وړ راتلونکي سیاسي چاپېریال کې الکساندر هرزن د دغو پر ځای نیهیلېزم د sorokovniki محصول په توګه چې sestidesjatniki منلی و؛ معرفي کاوه. معاصرو څېړونو له شک او تردید سره د روسي نیهیلېزم معادل ګڼل ننګولي او پرځای یې هغه د نیهیلېستي خوځښت اساسي پرومیتي یا بنسټیز شخصیت جوړونکی بللی(پرومیتي شخصیت جوړونه په یوناني افسانو کې کارول شوی). په واقعیت کې نیهیلېستان د روسي وګړو د شخصیتي ځواک د آزادولو په لټه کې و چې هغوی دغه چاره د وګړو په لومړۍ نمونوي طبقه یا د دوی په خپله خبره په نوو انواعو کې تجسم کوله. دغه کسان د نیکولای چرنیشفکسي له خوا د منطقي ځان پالونکو، د پیسارفو او نیکولای شلګونف له نظره د متفکرو پرولتاریا، د پیوتر لاوروف له نظره د نقدي فکر لرونکو شخصیتونو، د نیکولای میخایلوفکسي پر باور د روڼ آندو او د نورو له نظره د کلتوري مخکښانو په توګه بلل کېدل. نیهیلېزم همدارنګه د روسي وګړو همیشني خوی ته اړوند بلل کېږي چې له دغه خوځښت څخه له ډېر مهال وړاندې یې شتون درلود.[۲۴][۲۵]The opening <ref>
tag is malformed or has a bad name[۲۶][۲۷][۲۸][۲۹]
دغه خوځښت چې له نارودېزم سره مشترکات لري د سیاسي اصطلاح په توګه تعریف کېږي. د بېلګې په توګه شوروي علوم د هغو پر ځای د انقلابي دیموکراتانو اصطلاح کاروي. په داسې حال کې چې د ډېری نیهیلېستانو د نظر له مخې د سیاست رول منسوخ او نا اړوند ګڼل کېده. هغوی سیاست ته شاه کړه او هغه کسان چې سیاسي لیدلوري او یا یې هم سوسیالیستي همدردي لرله په کې ناڅرګند پاتې شول. روسي نیهیلېزم همدارنګه لږکیو ته په اړوندو کلتوري اصطلاحاتو او فلسفي اصطلاحاتو کې تعریف کېږي خو په ناسمه بڼه د سیاسي ترهګرۍ د ډول په توګه هم تعریف کېږي. [۳۰][۳۱][۳۲][۳۳][۳۴][۳۵][۳۶]
سرچينې
[سمول]- ↑
- "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. “Nihilism, (from Latin nihil, "nothing"), originally a philosophy of moral and epistemological skepticism that arose in 19th-century Russia during the early years of the reign of Tsar Alexander II.”
- Pratt, Alan "Nihilism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. “In Russia, nihilism became identified with a loosely organized revolutionary movement (C.1860-1917) that rejected the authority of the state, church, and family.”
- Lovell, Stephen (1998). "Nihilism, Russian". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. DOI:10.4324/9780415249126-E072-1. ISBN 9780415250696. “Nihilism was a broad social and cultural movement as well as a doctrine.”
- ↑
- "nihilism (n.)", Online Etymology Dictionary,
from Latin nihil "nothing at all" ... Turgenev used the Russian form of the word (nigilizm) in "Fathers and Children" (1862)
- Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Studies in East European Thought. 71 (2): 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. S2CID 150893870.
"nihilism" was via Turgenev's F&C introduced to a wider audience in the early 1860s Russia, in the form of the loanword nigilizm
- "nihilism (n.)", Online Etymology Dictionary,
- ↑ "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. “Peter Kropotkin, the leading Russian anarchist, defined nihilism as the symbol of struggle against all forms of tyranny, hypocrisy, and artificiality and for individual freedom.”
- ↑ Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Studies in East European Thought. 71 (2): 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. S2CID 150893870.
Russian nihilism did not imply, as one might expect from a purely semantic viewpoint, a universal "negation" of ethical normativity, the foundations of knowledge or the meaningfulness of human existence.
- ↑
- Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Studies in East European Thought. 71 (2): 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. S2CID 150893870.
- Scanlan, James P. (1999). "The Case against Rational Egoism in Dostoevsky's Notes from Underground". Journal of the History of Ideas. 60 (3). University of Pennsylvania Press: 553–554. doi:10.2307/3654018. JSTOR 3654018.
- ↑
- Lovell, Stephen (1998). "Nihilism, Russian". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. DOI:10.4324/9780415249126-E072-1. ISBN 9780415250696. “The 1860s were once described by Trotsky as 'a brief eighteenth century' in Russian thought. The Nihilist thinkers sought to assimilate and resynthesize the main trends in Western materialism and positivism. As usual in Russia, imported ideas were treated selectively and deployed in quite distinctive intellectual formations.”
- Edie, James M.; Scanlan, James; Zeldin, Mary-Barbara (1994). Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture. University of Tennessee Press. p. 3.
on the whole the Westernizers were an obsolete older generation in the eyes of the Nihilists
- ↑ Frank, Joseph (1995). Dostoevsky: The Miraculous Years, 1865–1871. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01587-2.
- ↑ Kline, George L. (1967). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Macmillan Reference USA.
- ↑ Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. pp. 140, 143, 160. ISBN 9780226293486.
First, the positive or constructive side of nihilism was never clearly defined. For some radicals, it was vaguely socialist, based on the idea of the village commune (mir). Others saw a managerial class as the basis for the new order. Most nihilists, however, were convinced that this positive goal could only be properly formulated when the chains of repression had been broken."; "This strange lack of concern was apparently the result of their belief that politics was linked to an outdated stage of humanity."; "The nihilists' neglect of politics, which they saw to be outdated, proved in this case to be their undoing.
- ↑ "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. “The philosophy of nihilism then began to be associated erroneously with the regicide of Alexander II (1881) and the political terror that was employed by those active at the time in clandestine organizations opposed to absolutism.”
- ↑ Kropotkin, Peter (1899). Memoirs of a Revolutionist. Houghton Mifflin.
The movement is misunderstood in Western Europe. In the press, for example, nihilism is continually confused with terrorism. The revolutionary disturbance which broke out in Russia toward the close of the reign of Alexander II., and ended in the tragic death of the Tsar, is constantly described as nihilism. This is, however, a mistake. To confuse nihilism with terrorism is as wrong as to confuse a philosophical movement like stoicism or positivism with a political movement such as, for example, republicanism. Terrorism was called into existence by certain special conditions of the political struggle at a given historical moment.
- ↑ Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. p. 285. ISBN 9780226293486.
- ↑ Altizer, Thomas J. J. (1997). "Review: Nihilism before Nietzsche by Michael Allen Gillespie and Metaphysics by Michel Haar & Michael Gendre". The Journal of Religion. 77 (2). University of Chicago Press: 328–330. doi:10.1086/490005. JSTOR 1205805.
- ↑ Pipes, Richard (1964). "Narodnichestvo: A Semantic Inquiry". Slavic Review. 23 (3): 441–458. doi:10.2307/2492683. JSTOR 2492683. S2CID 147530830.
Ill-informed authors of that time usually referred to all Russian revolutionaries as "nihilists." Well-informed ones either did not refer to narodnichestvo at all, or employed this word correctly in the specific, narrow sense of the mid-1870's. ... The same holds true of the writings of no less an authority than Stepniak-Kravchinsky. ... In Russian Storm Cloud, protesting the misuse in the West of the word "nihilist," he says that the Russian revolutionaries themselves use two names: a formal one—"socialist revolutionaries"—and a colloquial one—"radicals."
- ↑
- "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. “In Russian literature, nihilism was probably first used by N.I. Nadezhdin, in an 1829 article in the Messenger of Europe, in which he applied it to Aleksandr Pushkin. Nadezhdin, as did V.V. Bervi in 1858, equated nihilism with skepticism. Mikhail Nikiforovich Katkov, a well-known conservative journalist who interpreted nihilism as synonymous with revolution, presented it as a social menace because of its negation of all moral principles.”
- Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Studies in East European Thought. 71 (2): 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. S2CID 150893870.
Vissarion Belinsky, had symptomatically employed the term in a more neutral sense
- ↑ Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Studies in East European Thought. 71 (2): 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. S2CID 150893870.
liberal critics called the radicals "materialists"; but then, when it was no longer sufficiently derogatory, they came to prefer the term "nihilists".
- ↑
- Lovell, Stephen (1998). "Nihilism, Russian". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. DOI:10.4324/9780415249126-E072-1. ISBN 9780415250696. “Russian Nihilism is perhaps best regarded as the intellectual pool of the period 1855–66 out of which later radical movements emerged”
- Nishitani, Keiji (1990). McCormick, Peter J. (ed.). The Self-Overcoming of Nihilism. Translated by Parkes, Graham; with Setsuko Aihara. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0791404382.
Nihilism and anarchism, which for a while would completely dominate the intelligentsia and become a major factor in the history of nineteenth-century Russia, emerged in the final years of the reign of Alexander I.
- ↑ "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. “Nihilism, (from Latin nihil, "nothing"), originally a philosophy of moral and epistemological skepticism that arose in 19th-century Russia during the early years of the reign of Tsar Alexander II.”
- ↑
- Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. DOI:10.4324/9780415249126-E050-1. ISBN 9780415250696. “By 1861 the radicals were disappointed by the slow pace of reform, and especially by the illiberal terms of the emancipation of the serfs in that year.”
- Edie, James M.; Scanlan, James; Zeldin, Mary-Barbara (1994). Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture. University of Tennessee Press. p. 5.
When emancipation finally came in 1861, however, it was a bitter disappointment to the men of the sixties, for its terms gave the serfs little chance of economic self-sufficiency or genuine freedom.
- ↑
- Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Studies in East European Thought. 71 (2): 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. S2CID 150893870.
Even so, the term nihilism did not become popular until Turgenev published F&C in 1862. Turgenev, a sorokovnik (an 1840s man), used the term to describe "the children", the new generation of students and intellectuals who, by virtue of their relation to their fathers, were considered šestidesjatniki.
- "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. “It was Ivan Turgenev, in his celebrated novel Fathers and Sons (1862), who popularized the term through the figure of Bazarov the nihilist.”
- "Fathers and Sons". Encyclopædia Britannica. “Fathers and Sons concerns the inevitable conflict between generations and between the values of traditionalists and intellectuals.”
- Edie, James M.; Scanlan, James; Zeldin, Mary-Barbara (1994). Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture. University of Tennessee Press. p. 3.
The "fathers" of the novel are full of humanitarian, progressive sentiments ... But to the "sons," typified by the brusque scientifically minded Bazarov, the "fathers" were concerned too much with generalities, not enough with the specific material evils of the day.
- Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Studies in East European Thought. 71 (2): 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. S2CID 150893870.
- ↑ Frank, Joseph (1995). Dostoevsky: The Miraculous Years, 1865–1871. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01587-2.
For it was Bazarov who had first declared himself to be a "Nihilist" and who announced that, "since at the present time, negation is the most useful of all," the Nihilists "deny—everything."
- ↑
- "Fathers and Sons". Encyclopædia Britannica. “At the novel's first appearance, the radical younger generation attacked it bitterly as a slander, and conservatives condemned it as too lenient”
- Crosby, Donald A. (1998). "Nihilism". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. DOI:10.4324/9780415249126-N037-1. ISBN 9780415250696. “Bazarov's nihilism quickly became famous in Russia and was warmly endorsed by certain revolutionary groups there in the 1860s”
- "Fathers and Sons". Novels for Students. بياځلي په August 11, 2020 – via Encyclopedia.com.
when he returned to Saint Petersburg in 1862 on the same day that young radicals—calling themselves "nihilists"—were setting fire to buildings
- ↑ Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Studies in East European Thought. 71 (2): 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. S2CID 150893870.
In this context the very term "nihilism" was, if not embraced, so at least tolerated and occasionally used self-referentially—as the nihilists saw themselves.
- ↑
- Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Studies in East European Thought. 71 (2): 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. S2CID 150893870.
"Realists" have the same referent as "nihilists"; the character chosen by Pisarev to represent "our realism" is Bazarov, the "representative of our young generation"—the archetypical nihilist.
- Simmons, Ernest J. (1965). Introduction to Russian Realism. Indiana University Press.
- Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Studies in East European Thought. 71 (2): 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. S2CID 150893870.
- ↑ Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Studies in East European Thought. 71 (2): 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. S2CID 150893870.
Pisarev responded by writing an enthusiastic review ... endorsing the young generation's embrace of nihilism"; "Although realism, like nihilism, implies the rejection of metaphysics, sophistry, sentimentalism and aestheticism, it may, however, harbour a more positive and objective approach to reality, in contrast to nihilism and its connotations of subjectivism and nothingness.
- ↑ Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. p. 139. ISBN 9780226293486.
This nihilist movement was essentially Promethean"; "It has often been argued that Russian nihilism is little more than skepticism or empiricism. While there is a certain plausibility to this assertion, it ultimately fails to capture the millenarian zeal the characterized Russian nihilism. These nihilists were not skeptics but passionate advocates of negation and liberation.
- ↑
- Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. pp. 143–144. ISBN 9780226293486.
While the two leading nihilist groups disagreed on details, they both sought to liberate the Promethean might of the Russian people"; "The nihilists believed that the prototypes of this new Promethean humanity already existed in the cadre of the revolutionary movement itself.
- Petrov, Kristian (2019). "'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation". Studies in East European Thought. 71 (2): 73–97. doi:10.1007/s11212-019-09319-4. S2CID 150893870.
These "new types", to borrow Pisarev's designation
- Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. pp. 143–144. ISBN 9780226293486.
- ↑ Nishitani, Keiji (1990). McCormick, Peter J. (ed.). The Self-Overcoming of Nihilism. Translated by Graham Parkes; with Setsuko Aihara. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0791404382.
Nihilism in Russia is said to have been deeply rooted in the radical temperament of the Russian people before it took the form of thought.
- ↑
- Korotov, Iu. N. (1979). "Chernyshevskii, Nikolai Gavrilovich". The Great Soviet Encyclopedia. “Chernyshevskii described the lives of new types of persons—the "rational egoists," who live by their own labor, lead a new kind of family life, and disseminate the ideas of socialism in practice.”
- Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. p. 144. ISBN 9780226293486.
These Promethean cadres were called "new people" by Chernyshevsky, the "thinking proletariat" by Pisarev and Nikolai Shelgunov, "critically thinking personalities" by P. L. Lavrov, and "cultural pioneers" by others. N. K. Mikhaylovsky called them intelligentsia.
- ↑ Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. pp. 143, 160. ISBN 9780226293486.
This strange lack of concern was apparently the result of their belief that politics was linked to an outdated stage of humanity."; "The nihilists' neglect of politics, which they believed to be outdated, proved in this case to be their undoing.
- ↑ Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. pp. 140, 143. ISBN 9780226293486.
Most nihilists, however, were convinced that this positive goal could only be properly formulated when the chains of repression had been broken"; "This strange lack of concern was apparently the result of their belief that politics was linked to an outdated stage of humanity.
- ↑ Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. p. 285. ISBN 9780226293486.
- ↑
- Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. DOI:10.4324/9780415249126-E050-1. ISBN 9780415250696. “During the communist period of Russian history, the principal "nihilist" theoreticians were officially lionized under the designation "Russian revolutionary democrats"”
- "Nihilism". The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (3rd). (1970–1979).
- ↑
- Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. p. 140. ISBN 9780226293486.
First, the positive or constructive side of nihilism was never clearly defined. For some radicals, it was vaguely socialist, based on the idea of the village commune (mir). Others saw a managerial class as the basis for the new order.
- Lovell, Stephen (1998). "Nihilism, Russian". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. DOI:10.4324/9780415249126-E072-1. ISBN 9780415250696. “It is, however, the vagueness of their positive programmes that distinguishes the Nihilists from the revolutionary socialists who followed them.”
- Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996). Nihilism Before Nietzsche. University of Chicago Press. p. 140. ISBN 9780226293486.
- ↑
- Edie, James M.; Scanlan, James; Zeldin, Mary-Barbara (1994). Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture. University of Tennessee Press. p. 6.
among the Russian students who used the name "Nihilism" to dignify youthful rebelliousness, this rejection of traditional standards went still further, expressing itself in everything from harmless crudities of dress and behavior to the lethal fanaticism of a revolutionary like Sergey Nechayev.
- Stites, Richard (1978). The Women's Liberation Movement in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism, and Bolshevism, 1860-1930. Princeton University Press. pp. 99–100. ISBN 0691100586.
Nihilism was not so much a corpus of formal beliefs and programs (like populism, liberalism, Marxism) as it was a cluster of attitudes and social values and a set of behavioral affects—manners, dress, friendship patterns.
- Edie, James M.; Scanlan, James; Zeldin, Mary-Barbara (1994). Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture. University of Tennessee Press. p. 6.
- ↑ "Nihilism". Encyclopædia Britannica. “The philosophy of nihilism then began to be associated erroneously with the regicide of Alexander II (1881) and the political terror that was employed by those active at the time in clandestine organizations opposed to absolutism.”