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{{Article issues|OR = October 2008|primarysources=October 2008|essay-like=October 2008|refimprove =June 2009}}


[[دوتنه:PaperboyinAustinTX.JPG|thumb|right|230px|Journalism on its way to the reader: statue of a newspaper delivery boy at the Texas Press Association in [[Austin, Texas|Austin]]]]
'''Journalism ''' is the [[craft]] of conveying [[news]], descriptive material and [[editorial|comment]] via a widening spectrum of [[News media|media]]. These include [[newspaper]]s, [[magazine]]s, [[radio]] and [[television]], the [[internet]] and even, more recently, the [[cellphone]] (or [[mobile phone]]). Journalists—be they [[reporter|writers]], [[editor]]s or [[photographer]]s; broadcast presenters or producers—serve as the chief purveyors of [[information]] and opinion in contemporary mass [[society]] According to BBC journalist, Andrew Marr, "News is what the consensus of journalists determines it to be." <ref>[[Andrew Marr]], ''Start the Week'', BBC Radio 4, 29 December, 2008.</ref>


From informal beginnings in the [[Europe]] of the [[18th century]], stimulated by the arrival of mechanized [[printing]]—in due course by [[mass production]] and in the [[20th century]] by [[electronic communication]]s [[technology]]—today's engines of journalistic enterprise include large [[corporation]]s with global reach.


The formal [[social status|status]] of journalism has varied historically and, still varies vastly, from country to country. The [[Sovereign state|modern state]] and [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] [[political power|power structures]] in general have tended to see the unrestricted flow of information as a potential threat, and inimical to their own proper function. [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] described the Press as a "machine for mass instruction," ideally, a "kind of school for adults." <ref>Adolf Hitler, ''Mein Kampf'', London, 1939, p.17.</ref> Journalism at its most vigorous, by contrast, tends to be propelled by the implications at least of the attitude epitomized by the Australian journalist [[John Pilger]]: "Secretive power loathes journalists who do their job, who push back screens, peer behind façades, lift rocks. Opprobrium from on high is their badge of honour."


[[Censorship]], governmental restriction or even active repression of individual journalists and non-state organs of communication continue to cause, at best, intermittent friction in most countries. Few formal [[democracy|democracies]] and no [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] governments make provision for protection of [[press freedom]] implied by the term ''[[Fourth Estate]]''. <ref name="A Compromised Fourth Estate">[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a790460441 A Compromised Fourth Estate?] - Journalism Studies</ref>


The rapid rise of Internet technology, in particular the advent of [[blogging]] and [[social networking]] [[software]], further destabilize journalism as traditionally understood and its practitioners as a distinct professional category. Combined with the increasing leakage of [[advertising]] revenue from pre-existing journalistic media into the internet, the full impact of the arrival of the [[citizen journalist]]—potentially positive (proliferation having thus far proved more difficult to police) as well as negative—is yet to be seen.
{{Journalism}}


== History ==


[[Johann Carolus]]' ''Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien'', published in 1605 in [[Strassburg]], is often recognized as the first [[newspaper]]. The first successful English daily, The Daily Courant, was published from 1702 to 1735<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelprestype/news/concisehistoryofthebritishnewspaper/britnews18th/ Concise History of the British Newspaper in the Eighteenth Century]</ref> From informal beginnings, stimulated by the arrival of mechanized [[printing]]—in due course by [[mass production]] and in the 20th century by [[electronic communication]]s [[technology]]—today's journalistic enterprises include large [[corporation]]s with global distribution that include newspapers, television and the Internet.


The formal [[social status|status]] of journalism has varied historically and still varies greatly from country to country. The [[Sovereign state|modern state]] and [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] [[political power|power structures]] in general have tended to consider unrestricted flow of information as a potential threat, and inimical to their own proper function.


[[Censorship]], governmental restriction or even active repression of individual journalists and non-state organs of communication continue to cause, at best, intermittent trouble in most countries. Few formal [[democracy|democracies]] and no [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] governments make provision for protection of [[press freedom]] implied by the term ''[[Fourth Estate]]''. <ref name="A Compromised Fourth Estate"/><ref>[http://www.fourth-estate.com/ The Fourth Estate] - Media Analysis</ref>


The rise of Internet technologies, in particular the advent of [[blogging]] and [[social networking]] [[software]], further destabilize journalism as defined traditionally, and its practitioners as a distinct professional category. Combined with the increasing transfer of [[advertising]] revenue from print and broadcast media to the internet, the full effect of the arrival of the "[[citizen journalist]]" — potentially positive (proliferation having thus far proved more difficult to police) as well as negative— is not yet known.


== Media ==
=== Print ===
[[دوتنه:CBC journalists in Montreal.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Journalists at work in [[Montreal]] in the 1940s]]
A '''[[story]]''' is a single article, [[news]] item or [[feature]], usually concerning a single [[event]], issue, [[theme (literature)|theme]], or [[profile]] of a person. ''Correspondents'' report news occurring in the main, locally, from their own country, or from foreign cities where they are stationed.


Most reporters ''file'' information or write their stories electronically from remote locations. In many cases, ''breaking stories'' are written by staff members, through information collected and submitted by other reporters who are out on the field gathering information for an event that has just occurred and needs to be broadcast instantly. Radio and television reporters often compose stories and report "live" from the scene. Some journalists also interpret the news or offer opinions and analysis to readers, viewers, or listeners. In this role, they are called commentators or columnists.


Reporters take notes and also take photographs or shoot videos, either on their own, or through a [[photographer]] or camera person. In the second phase, they organize the material, determine the focus or emphasis (identify the peg), and finally write their stories. The story is then [[editing|edited]] by news or copy-editors, who function from the ''news desk''. The headline of the story is decided by the news desk, and practically never by the reporter or the writer of the piece. Often, the news desk also heavily re-writes or changes the style and tone of the first draft prepared by the reporter / writer originally. Finally, a collection of stories that have been picked for the newspaper or magazine ''edition'', are laid out on dummy (trial) pages, and after the ''chief editor'' has approved the content, style and language in the material, it is sent for [[publishing]]. The writer is given a ''byline'' for the piece that is published; his or her name appears alongside the article. This process takes place according to the frequency of the publication. News can be published in a variety of formats ([[broadsheet]], [[tabloid]], [[magazine]] and periodical publications) as well as periods (daily, weekly, semi-weekly, fortnightly or monthly).


=== Television ===
In a broadcast system (television), journalists or reporters are also involved with editing the video material that has been shot alongside their research, and in working on the visual [[narrative]] of the story. Broadcast journalists often make an appearance in the news story at the beginning or end of the video clip.


In [[television]] or [[broadcast journalism]], news analysts (also called news-casters or news anchors) examine, interpret, and broadcast news received from various [[Journalism sourcing|sources]] of information. ''Anchors'' present this as news, either videotaped or live, through transmissions from on-the-scene reporters (news correspondents).


News films ("clips") can vary in length; there are some which may be as long as ten minutes, others that need to fit in all the relevant information and material in two or three minutes. News channels these days have also begun to host special [[documentary films]] that stretch for much longer durations and are able to explore a news subject or issue in greater detail.


The desk persons categorise news stories with various formats according to the merit of the story. Such formats include AVO, AVO Byte, Pkg, VO SOT, VOX POP, and Ancho Visual.


[[وېشنيزه:خبریالي]]
* The AVO, or Anchor Voice Over, is the short form of news. The story is written in a gist. According to the script visual is edited. The anchor reads the news while the visual is broadcast simultaneously. Generally, the duration of an AVO is 30 to 40 seconds. The script is three to four lines. At first the anchor starts to read the news, and, after reading one or one-and-a-half lines, the visual is aired, overlapping the face of anchor.

* The AVO Byte has two parts: An AVO, and one or more bytes. This is the same as an AVO, except that as soon as the AVO ends, the Byte is aired.

* The Pkg has three parts: Anchor, Voice Over, and Sign Off. At first a Script is written. A voice over anchor reads the anchor or anchor intro part.

=== News agencies ===
[[News agencies]], which are also known as wire services provide news to publications, broadcasters and media houses by the minute. Notable examples are [[Agence France-Presse]], [[Reuters]] and the [[Associated Press]].

The financial problems facing the newspaper industry mean newspapers are generally more reliant on news agencies. According to The Economist, "a few struggling newspaper groups have stopped subscribing to newswires. Many others, having cut their own newsrooms, have become more dependent than ever on regurgitating agency copy."<ref name="economist.com">The Economist Feb 12 09; http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13109820</ref>

The rise of news websites that lack staff to produce news, has also helped news agencies. According to Tom Curley, of Associated Press, in 2008 printed newspapers contributed only 25% of the company's revenues, a reduction from 55% in 1985."<ref name="economist.com"/>

=== Internet ===
The [[Internet]] has allowed the formal and informal publication of news stories through mainstream media outlets as well as [[blog]]s and other [[self-publishing|self-published]] news stories. Journalists working on the Internet have been referred to as J-Bloggers, a term coined by Australian Media Academic Dr Nicola Goc to describe journalists who [blog] and [blog]gers who produce journalism. "J-Bloggers: Internet bloggers acting in the role of journalists disseminating newsworthy information, who subscribe to the journalistic ideals of an obligation to the truth and the public's right to know" (Media and Journalism: Theory to Practice (2008) Melbourne: OUP, p45) . The web has also seen the development of [[Online Newspapers]] and [[Online magazine]].

=== Newscasters ===
Newscasters function at large stations and networks that usually specialize in a particular type of news, such as sports or weather. Weathercasters, also called weather reporters, report current and forecast weather conditions. They gather information from national satellite weather services, wire services, and local and regional weather bureaus. Some weathercasters are trained meteorologists and develop their own weather forecasts. Sportscasters select, write, and deliver sports news. This may include interviews with sports personalities and coverage of games and other sporting events.

== Article topics and writing ==
Articles are written about topics that are considered notable by the editors of the publication, with notability varying depending on the focus and audience of the publisher. Large agencies or companies may have reporters that are specialized to discuss specific topics (a ''beat''); smaller agencies are more likely to have a small number of reporters covering all areas of interest. [[Investigative report]]s may cover lengthy stories that require days or weeks to gather sufficient information. Articles must be produced to meet a limited [[time limit|deadline]] determined by the broadcast or print time of the specific publication and working hours may vary according to the deadlines set and depending on projects or last-minute developments may be long or irregular.

== Styles ==

Newspapers and periodicals often contain [[feature story|features]] (see [[Feature style]]) written by journalists, many of whom specialize in this form of in-depth journalistic writing.

Feature articles are usually longer forms of writing; more attention is paid to style than in straight news reports. They are often combined with photographs, drawings or other "art." They may also be highlighted by typographic effects or colors.

Writing features can be more demanding than writing straight news stories, because while a journalist must apply the same amount of effort to accurately gather and report the facts of the story, he or she must also find a creative and interesting way to ''write'' it. The ''lead'' (or first two paragraphs of the story; see [[Nut graph]]) must grab the reader's attention and yet accurately embody the ideas of the article.

In the last half of the 20th Century the line between straight news reporting and feature writing has blurred. Journalists and publications today experiment with different approaches to writing. [[Tom Wolfe]], [[Gay Talese]], [[Hunter S. Thompson]] are some of these examples. Urban and alternative weekly newspapers go even further in blurring the distinction, and many magazines include more features than straight news.

Some television news shows experimented with alternative formats, and many TV shows that claimed to be news shows were not considered as such by traditional critics, because their content and methods do not adhere to accepted journalistic standards. [[National Public Radio]], on the other hand, is considered a good example of mixing straight news reporting, features, and combinations of the two, usually meeting standards of high quality. Other US public radio news organizations have achieved similar results. A majority of newspapers still maintain a clear distinction between news and features, as do most television and radio news organizations.

=== Sports journalism ===
{{Main|Sports journalism}}

Sports journalism covers many aspects of human [[athletic]] competition, and is an integral part of most journalism products, including newspapers, magazines, and radio and television news broadcasts. While some critics don't consider sports journalism to be true journalism, the prominence of sports in Western culture has justified the attention of journalists to not just the competitive events in sports, but also to athletes and the business of sports.

Sports journalism in the United States has traditionally been written in a looser, more creative and more opinionated tone than traditional journalistic writing; the emphasis on accuracy and underlying fairness is still a part of sports journalism. An emphasis on the accurate description of the statistical performances of athletes is also an important part of sports journalism.

=== Science journalism ===
{{Main|Science journalism}}

Science journalism is a relatively new branch of journalism, in which journalists' reporting conveys information on science topics to the public. Science journalists must understand and interpret very detailed, technical and sometimes jargon-laden information and render it into interesting reports that are comprehensible to consumers of news media.

Scientific journalists also must choose which developments in science merit news coverage, as well as cover disputes within the scientific community with a balance of fairness to both sides but also with a devotion to the facts.

=== Investigative journalism ===
{{Main|Investigative journalism}}

Investigative journalism, in which journalists investigate and expose [[unethical]], [[immoral]], and [[Law|illegal]] behavior by individuals, businesses and government agencies, can be complicated, time-consuming and expensive — requiring teams of journalists, months of research, interviews (sometimes repeated interviews) with numerous people, long-distance travel, computers to analyze public-record databases, or use of the company's legal staff to secure documents under freedom of information laws.

Because of its high costs and inherently confrontational nature, this kind of reporting is often the first to suffer from budget cutbacks or interference from outside the news department. Investigative reporting done poorly can also expose journalists and media organizations to negative reaction from the subjects of investigations and the public, and accusations of [[gotcha journalism]]. When conducted correctly it can bring the attention of the public and government to problems and conditions that the public deem need to be addressed, and can win awards and recognition to the journalists involved and the media outlet that did the reporting.

=== New journalism ===
{{Main|New Journalism}}

New Journalism was the name given to a style of 1960s and 1970s news writing and journalism which used literary techniques deemed unconventional at the time. The term was codified with its current meaning by [[Tom Wolfe]] in a 1973 collection of journalism articles.

It is typified by using certain devices of literary fiction, such as conversational speech, first-person point of view, recording everyday details and telling the story using scenes. Though it seems undisciplined at first, new journalism maintains elements of reporting including strict adherence to factual accuracy and the writer being the primary source. To get "inside the head" of a character, the journalist asks the subject what they were thinking or how they felt.

Because of its unorthodox style, new journalism is typically employed in feature writing or book-length reporting projects.

Many new journalists are also writers of fiction and prose. In addition to Wolfe, writers whose work has fallen under the title "new journalism" include [[Norman Mailer]], [[Hunter S. Thompson]], [[Joan Didion]], [[Truman Capote]], [[George Plimpton]] and [[Gay Talese]].

=== Gonzo journalism ===
{{Main|Gonzo journalism}}
[[Gonzo journalism]] is a type of journalism popularized by the American writer [[Hunter S. Thompson]], author of ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'', ''[[Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72]]'' and ''[[The Kentucky Derby is Decadent and Depraved]]'', among other stories and books. Gonzo journalism is characterized by its punchy style, rough language, and ostensible disregard for conventional journalistic writing forms and customs. More importantly, the traditional objectivity of the journalist is given up through immersion into the story itself, as in New Journalism, and the reportage is taken from a first-hand, participatory perspective, sometimes using an [[author surrogate]] such as Thompson's [[Raoul Duke]]. Gonzo journalism attempts to present a multi-disciplinary perspective on a particular story, drawing from popular culture, sports, political, philosophical and literary sources. Gonzo journalism has been styled [[Eclecticism|eclectic]] or untraditional. It remains a feature of popular magazines such as ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine. It has a good deal in common with new journalism and on-line journalism (see above).

=== "Celebrity" or "people" journalism ===

Another area of journalism that grew in stature in the 20th Century is 'celebrity' or 'people' journalism, which focuses on the personal lives of people, primarily celebrities, including movie and stage actors, musical artists, models and photographers, other notable people in the entertainment industry, as well as people who seek attention, such as politicians, and people thrust into the attention of the public, such as people who do something newsworthy.

Once the province of newspaper [[gossip columnist]]s and [[gossip magazine]]s, celebrity journalism has become the focus of national tabloid newspapers like the ''[[National Enquirer]]'', magazines like ''[[People (magazine)|People]]'' and ''[[Us Weekly]]'', syndicated television shows like ''[[Entertainment Tonight]]'', ''[[Inside Edition]]'', ''[[The Insider (TV series)|The Insider]]'', ''[[Access Hollywood]]'', and ''[[Extra (TV series)|Extra]]'', cable networks like [[E!]], [[A&E Network]] and [[The Biography Channel]], and numerous other television productions and thousands of websites. Most other news media provide some coverage of celebrities and people.

Celebrity journalism differs from feature writing in that it focuses on people who are either already famous or are especially attractive, and in that it often covers celebrities obsessively, to the point of these journalists behaving unethically in order to provide coverage. [[Paparazzo|Paparazzi]], photographers who would follow celebrities incessantly to obtain potentially embarrassing photographs, have come to characterize celebrity journalism.

=== "Convergence journalism" ===

An emerging form of journalism, which combines different forms of journalism, such as print, photographic and video, into one piece or group of pieces. Convergence journalism can be found in the likes of CNN and many other news sites. ''The Washington Post'' has a notable amount of this.

=== Ambush journalism ===

Ambush journalism refers to aggressive tactics practiced by journalists to suddenly confront and question people who otherwise do not wish to speak to a journalist. The practice has particularly been applied by television journalists, on news shows like [[The O'Reilly Factor]] <ref>http://thinkprogress.org/2009/03/23/watters-ambush/</ref> and [[60 Minutes]] {{Fact|March 2009|date=March 2009}} and by [[Geraldo Rivera]] and other local television reporters conducting investigations.

The practice has been sharply criticized by journalists and others as being highly [[unethical]] and [[sensational]], while others defend it as the only way to attempt to provide those subject to it an opportunity to comment for a report. This can usually be discerned by the level of physical aggression the journalist displays and in the time allowed for an uninterrupted answer.

=== Other ===
* [[Advocacy journalism]]
* [[Citizen journalism]]
* [[Social news]]
* [[Participatory Media]]
* [[Community journalism]]
* [[Environmental journalism]]
* [[Fashion journalism]]
* [[Innovation journalism]]
* [[Online journalism]]
* [[Parachute journalism]]
* [[Service journalism]]
* [[Trade journalism]]
* [[Video journalism]]

== Role of journalism in a democracy ==
{{Main|Freedom of the press}}
In the 1920s, as modern journalism was just taking form, writer [[Walter Lippmann]] and American philosopher [[John Dewey]] debated over the role of journalism in a [[democracy]]. Their differing philosophies still characterize a debate about the role of journalism in society and the nation-state.

'''Lippmann''' understood that journalism's role at the time was to act as a mediator or [[translator]] between the [[public]] and policy making elites. The journalist became the middleman. When elites spoke, journalists listened and recorded the information, distilled it, and passed it on to the public for their consumption. His reasoning behind this was that the public was not in a position to deconstruct the growing and complex flurry of information present in modern society, and so an intermediary was needed to filter news for the masses. Lippman put it this way: The public is not smart enough to understand complicated, political issues. Furthermore, the public was too consumed with their daily lives to care about complex public policy. Therefore the public needed someone to interpret the decisions or concerns of the elite to make the information plain and simple. That was the role of journalists. Lippmann believed that the public would affect the decision-making of the elite with their vote. In the meantime, the elite (i.e. politicians, policy makers, bureaucrats, scientists, etc.) would keep the business of power running. In Lippman's world, the journalist's role was to inform the public of what the elites were doing. It was also to act as a watchdog over the elites, as the public had the final say with their votes. Effectively that kept the public at the bottom of the power chain, catching the flow of information that is handed down from experts/elites.

'''Dewey''', on the other hand, believed the public was not only capable of understanding the issues created or responded to by the elite, it was in the public forum that decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface. Dewey believed journalists should do more than simply pass on information. He believed they should weigh the [[consequences]] of the policies being enacted. Over time, his idea has been implemented in various degrees, and is more commonly known as "[[community journalism]]."

This concept of ''community journalism'' is at the centre of new developments in journalism. In this new paradigm, journalists are able to engage citizens and the experts/elites in the proposition and generation of content. It's important to note that while there is an assumption of equality, Dewey still celebrates expertise. Dewey believes the shared knowledge of many is far superior to a single individual's knowledge. Experts and scholars are welcome in Dewey's framework, but there is not the hierarchical structure present in Lippman's understanding of journalism and society. According to Dewey, conversation, debate, and dialogue lie at the heart of a democracy.

While Lippman's journalistic philosophy might be more acceptable to government leaders, Dewey's approach is a better description of how many journalists see their role in society, and, in turn, how much of society expects journalists to function. Americans, for example, may criticize some of the excesses committed by journalists, but they tend to expect journalists to serve as watchdogs on government, businesses and other actors, enabling people to make informed decisions on the issues of the time.

=== The elements of journalism ===

According to ''The Elements of Journalism'', a book by [[Bill Kovach]] and Tom Rosenstiel, there are nine elements of journalism [http://journalism.org/node/72]. In order for a journalist to fulfill their duty of providing the people with the information they need to be free and self-governing. They must follow these guidelines:

# Journalism's first obligation is to the truth.
# Its first loyalty is to the citizens.
# Its essence is discipline of verification.
# Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover.
# It must serve as an independent monitor of power.
# It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise.
# It must strive to make the significant interesting, and relevant.
# It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional.
# Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience.

In the April 2007 edition of the book [http://journalism.org/node/71], they have added one additional element, ''the rights and responsibilities of citizens'' to make it a total of ten elements of journalism.

== Professional and ethical standards ==

In the UK, all newspapers are bound by the Code of Practice of the [[Press Complaints Commission]]<ref>http://www.pcc.org.uk/cop/practice.html; Press Complaints Commission Code of Practice</ref>. This includes points like respecting people's privacy and ensuring accuracy. However, the Media Standards Trust has criticised the PCC, claiming it needs to be radically changed to secure public trust of newspapers.<ref>Roy Greenslade - Media watchdog attacks PCC as ineffective, unaccountable and opaque; http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/greenslade/2009/feb/09/pcc-newspapers</ref>

This is in stark contrast to the media climate prior to the 20th Century, where the media market was dominated by smaller newspapers and pamphleteers who usually had an overt and often radical agenda, with no presumption of balance or objectivity.

=== Recognition of excellence in journalism ===

There are several professional organizations, universities and foundations that recognize excellence in journalism in the USA. The [[Pulitzer Prize]], administered by [[Columbia University]] in [[New York City]], is awarded to newspapers, magazines and broadcast media for excellence in various kinds of journalism. The [[Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism]] gives the [[DuPont-Columbia Award|Alfred I. duPont-Columbia University Awards]] for excellence in radio and television journalism, and the [[Scripps Howard Foundation]] gives the [[National Journalism Awards]] in 17 categories. The [[Society of Professional Journalists]] gives the Sigma Delta Chi Award for journalism excellence. In the television industry, the [[National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences]] gives awards for excellence in television journalism.

=== Failing to uphold standards ===
Such a code of conduct can, in the real world, be difficult to uphold consistently. Journalists who believe they are being fair or objective may give biased accounts—by reporting selectively, trusting too much to [[anecdote]], or giving a partial explanation of actions. (See [[Media bias]].) Even in routine reporting, bias can creep into a story through a reporter's choice of facts to summarize, or through failure to check enough sources, hear and report dissenting voices, or seek fresh perspectives.

A news organization's budget inevitably reflects decision-making about what news to cover, for what audience, and in what depth. Those decisions may reflect conscious or unconscious bias. When budgets are cut, editors may sacrifice reporters in distant news bureaus, reduce the number of staff assigned to low-income areas, or wipe entire communities from the publication's zone of interest.

[[Publisher]]s, owners and other corporate executives, especially advertising sales executives, can try to use their powers over journalists to influence how news is reported and published. Journalists usually rely on top management to create and maintain a "firewall" between the news and other departments in a news organization to prevent undue influence on the news department. One journalism magazine, [[Columbia Journalism Review]], has made it a practice to reveal examples of executives who try to influence news coverage, of executives who do not abuse their powers over journalists, and of journalists who resist such pressures.

[[Self-censorship]] is a growing problem in journalism, particularly in covering countries that sharply restrict press freedom. As commercial pressure in the media marketplace grows, media organizations are loath to lose access to high-profile countries by producing unflattering stories. For example, [[CNN]] admitted that it had practiced self-censorship in covering the Saddam Hussein regime in Iraq in order to ensure continued access after the regime had thrown out other media. CNN correspondent [[Christiane Amanpour]] also complained of self-censorship during the invasion of Iraq due to the fear of alienating key audiences in the US. There are claims that the media are also avoiding covering stories about repression and human rights violations by the Israeli and Iranian regimes in order to maintain a presence in those countries.

=== Reporting versus editorializing ===

Generally, publishers and consumers of journalism draw a distinction between reporting — "just the facts" — and opinion writing, often by restricting opinion columns to the editorial page and its facing or "op-ed" (opposite the editorials) page. Unsigned [[editorial]]s are traditionally the official opinions of the paper's editorial board, while op-ed pages may be a mixture of syndicated columns and other contributions, frequently with some attempt to [[Media balance|balance]] the voices across some political or social spectrum.

The distinction between reporting and opinion can break down. In the UK, the Press Complaints Commission states that "the Press, whilst free to be partisan, must distinguish clearly between comment, conjecture and fact"<ref>[http://www.pcc.org.uk/cop/practice.html; Press Complaints Commission's Code of Practice]</ref> but some commentators have suggested there can sometimes be a blurring of opinion and fact.<ref>http://www.journoworld.co.uk/Comment_in_Newspapers.html; JournoWorld - Writing Comment</ref> Complex stories often require summarizing and interpretation of facts, especially if there is limited time or space for a story. Stories involving great amounts of interpretation are often labelled "news analysis," but still run in a paper's news columns. The limited time for each story in a broadcast report rarely allows for such distinctions.

== Legal status ==
{{Main|Freedom of the press}}

Journalists around the world often write about the [[government]]s in their nations, and those governments have widely varying policies and practices towards journalists, which control what they can research and write, and what press organizations can publish. Many Western governments guarantee the [[freedom of the press]], and do relatively little to restrict press [[rights]] and [[Freedom (political)|freedoms]], while other nations severely restrict what journalists can research and/or publish.

Journalists in many nations have enjoyed some privileges not enjoyed by members of the general public, including better access to public events, crime scenes and press conferences, and to extended interviews with public officials, celebrities and others in the [[public eye]]. These privileges are available because of the perceived power of the press to turn public opinion for or against governments, their officials and policies, as well as the perception that the press often represents their consumers. These privileges extend from the legal rights of journalists but are not guaranteed by those rights. Sometimes government officials may attempt to punish individual journalists who irk them by denying them some of these privileges extended to other journalists.

Nations or jurisdictions that formally [[license]] journalists may confer special [[privilege]]s and [[Social responsibility|responsibilities]] along with those licenses, but in the [[United States]] the tradition of an independent press has avoided any imposition of government-controlled examinations or licensing.{{Fact|date=July 2007}} Some of the states have explicit [[shield laws]] that protect journalists from some forms of government inquiry, but those statutes' definitions of "journalist" were often based on access to printing presses and broadcast towers. A national shield law has been proposed.

In some nations, journalists are directly employed, controlled or [[censorship|censored]] by their governments. In other nations, governments who may claim to guarantee press rights actually [[intimidate]] journalists with threats of arrest, destruction or seizure of property (especially the means of production and dissemination of news content), torture or murder.

Journalists who elect to cover [[conflict]]s, whether [[war]]s between nations or [[insurgency|insurgencies]] within nations, often give up any expectation of protection by government, if not giving up their rights to protection by government. Journalists who are captured or detained during a conflict are expected to be treated as civilians and to be released to their national government.

=== Right to protect confidentiality of sources ===
{{Main|Protection of sources}}

Journalists' interaction with sources sometimes involves [[confidentiality]], an extension of freedom of the press giving journalists a legal protection to keep the identity of a [[confidential source|source]] private even when demanded by police or prosecutors; withholding sources can land journalists in contempt of court, or in jail.

The scope of rights granted to journalists varies from nation to nation; in the [[United Kingdom]], for example, the government has had more legal rights to protect what it considers sensitive information, and to force journalists to reveal the sources of leaked information, than the United States. Other nations, particularly [[Zimbabwe]] and the [[People's Republic of China]], have a reputation of persecuting journalists, both domestic and foreign.

In the [[United States]], there has never been a right to protect sources in a [[Federal government of the United States|federal]] court. Some states provide varying degrees of such protection. However, federal courts will refuse to force journalists to reveal sources, unless the information the court seeks is highly relevant to the case, and there's no other way to get it. Journalists, like all citizens, who refuse to testify even when ordered to can be found in [[contempt of court]] and fined or jailed.

== Right of access ==
{{Expand-section|date=July 2008}}
Journalists often depend on [[freedom of information legislation]] to access information held by the government. These rights also vary from nation to nation.

=== United States ===
{{Main|Freedom of information in the United States}}
In the [[United States]], the [[Freedom of Information Act]] guarantees journalists the right to obtain copies of government documents, although the government has the right to [[redact|black out]] some information from these documents. Other federal legislation also controls access to information.

Some states have more open policies for making information available, and some states have acted in the last decade to broaden those rights. [[New Jersey]] has updated and broadened its freedom of information legislation to better define what kinds of government documents can be withheld from public inquiry.

=== India ===
{{Main|Right to Information Act}}
In India, the [[Right to Information Act]] was passed in 2005, giving citizens the right to access state and national records.<ref>[http://www.righttoinformation.gov.in/ RTI Act, India, 2005]</ref>

=== France ===

In France, the [[freedom of press Act]] was passed in 1881, giving citizens the right to read and create any newspaper of his choice. In 1935, a new act was passed to protect the right of the journalist to work in good conditions, responding to the demand of the main journalist's Union, the 'Syndicat national des journalistes''<ref>http://www.snj.fr/</ref>. In 1971, two other unions, the ''Syndicat national des journalistes CGT''<ref>http://www.snj.cgt.fr/index1.html</ref>, and ''Union syndicale des journalistes CFDT''<ref>http://www.journalistes-cfdt.fr/</ref> signed the ''charte de Munich'', a stylebook dedicated to protect the [[Deontological ethics|deontology]] and spirit of journalism on a broadbased attempt to boost it all over the world.

== Media Development Organizations ==
There exist several organizations that use journalism as a form of media development. Such organizations include [[Search for Common Ground]], [[BBC World Service Trust]], and [[Journalists for Human Rights]].

== Current State ==

In 2008, journalism came under heavy fire. The decline of print newspapers has led to a sharp increase in job cuts for journalists. In 2008 alone, approximately 16,000 journalists were terminated<ref>[http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/world/2009/0328/1224243618924.html Desparate Battle to Save America's Struggling Newspapers]</ref> – a budgetary response to declining subscription dollars and the inability to adapt to a free-news-driven society. With advertising revenues taking a harsh rapping from the transitional shift of a subscription-based/advertising model to online ad placements, the discrepancy in advertising revenue is making it difficult for traditional newspapers to survive.

The [[Tribune Company]] (owner of the [[LA Times]]) filed for [[Chapter 11 bankruptcy]];<ref>[http://articles.latimes.com/2008/dec/09/business/fi-tribune9 Tribune Co. files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection]</ref> The [[Rocky Mountain News]] (one of the countries oldest newspapers) closed its doors after 150 years of business;<ref>[http://www.rockymountainnews.com/news/2009/feb/26/rocky-mountain-news-closes-friday-final-edition/ Rocky Mountain News Closes Its Doors]</ref> [[The Christian Science Monitor]] transitioned from its daily newspaper edition to online distribution;<ref>[http://www.editorsweblog.org/newsrooms_and_journalism/2009/03/csms_john_yemma_on_his_papers_plans_for.php CSM Online Only]</ref> 120 newspapers closed their doors in the first three months of 2009;<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2009/US/03/19/newspaper.decline.layoff/index.html Newspapers fold as readers defect and economy sours]</ref> newspaper circulation is down 7% in the first six months of 2009.<ref>[http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/newspaper-circulation-declines-7/story.aspx?guid={28ADA67B-A5CD-4B2C-BD97-9C50A2731BED}&dist=msr_15 Newspaper Circulation Declines 7% in the last six months]</ref>

Newspapers are forced to maximize their current staff in a response to declining advertising and circulation revenue.<ref>[http://sparxoo.com/2009/05/04/top-5-media-trends/ Media Trends]</ref> As formerly relied upon revenues shore-up, newspapers are exploring radically new ways of reaching readers. [[The New York Times]] has partnered with Amazon's Kindle DX to bring current subscribers and Kindle users NYT content.<ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=103881245 Kindle DX: Size Might Matter After All]</ref> This, along with other social media properties, are ways in which traditional media are fighting to stay relevant in the digital age.

== See also ==
{{portalpar|Journalism|Portal.svg}}

* [[Churnalism]]
* [[Creative nonfiction]]
* [[History of journalism]]
* [[History of American newspapers]]
* [[Jazz journalism]]
* [[Journalism ethics and standards]]
* [[Journalism in Australia]]
* [[Journalism education]]
* [[Journalism school]]
* [[Objectivity (journalism)]]
* [[Pen & Pencil Club]]
* [[Reporters without borders]]
* [[Yellow journalism]]
* [[Bus plunge]] (nickname for a type of short news story)
* [[Online newspaper]]
* [[Online magazine]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{WVS}}
{{Wikinewscat|Journalism}}
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[[وېشنيزه:Journalism]]


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