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د ۱۸:۴۵, ۶ اگسټ ۲۰۰۷ بڼه

کينډۍ:Infobox Country

Zambia, officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country in southern Africa. It borders the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, تانزانيه on the north-east, ملاوي on the east, موزمبيق, زېمبابوې, بوټسوانا, and Namibia to the south, and آنګولا on the west. Formerly Northern Rhodesia, the country is named after the Zambezi river.

تاريخ

آرنۍ ليکنه: History of Zambia

The indigenous Khoisan hunter-gatherer occupants of Zambia began to be displaced or absorbed by technologically advanced migrating tribes about 2,000 years ago. The major waves of Bantu-speaking immigrants—the Bantu expansion—began in the 12th century.

Among them, the Tonga people (also called Batonga) were first to settle in Zambia and are believed to have come from the far east near the "big sea." The Nkoya people had also come much earlier with some suggesting that they came first into what is today called Zambia from the Luba-Lunda kingdoms in the north. Other groups followed with the greatest influx coming between the late 17th and early 19th centuries. These later migrants came primarily from the Luba and Lunda tribes of southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola but were joined in the 19th century by Ngoni peoples from the south. By the later part of that century, the various peoples of Zambia were largely established in the areas they currently occupy.

Except for the occasional Portuguese explorer, the area lay untouched by Europeans for centuries. After the mid-19th century, it was penetrated by Western explorers, missionaries, and traders. In 1855, missionary and explorer David Livingstone, became the first European to see the magnificent waterfalls on the Zambezi River. He named them Victoria Falls after Queen Victoria.The falls are known in Zambia as Mosi-O-Tunya (in the Lozi or Kololo dialect), "the smoke that Thunders". The Zambian town, Livingstone, near the falls is named after him.

In 1888, Cecil Rhodes, spearheading British commercial and political interests in Central Africa, obtained a mineral rights concession from local chiefs. In the same year, Northern and Southern Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe, respectively) were proclaimed to be within the British sphere of influence. Southern Rhodesia was annexed formally and granted self-government in 1923, and the administration of Northern Rhodesia was transferred to the British Colonial Office in 1924 as a protectorate. Mining began in the Copperbelt in 1934.

In 1953, both Rhodesias were joined with Nyasaland (now Malawi) to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Northern Rhodesia was the centre of much of the turmoil and crisis that characterized the federation in its last years. At the core of the controversy were insistent African demands for greater participation in government and European fears of losing political control.

A two-stage election held in October and December 1962 resulted in an African majority in the legislative council and an uneasy coalition between the two African nationalist parties. The council passed resolutions calling for Northern Rhodesia's secession from the federation and demanding full internal self-government under a new constitution and a new National Assembly based on a broader, more democratic franchise. On 31 December 1963, the federation was dissolved, and Northern Rhodesia became the Republic of Zambia on 24 October 1964.

At independence, despite its considerable mineral wealth, Zambia faced major challenges. Domestically, there were few trained and educated Zambians capable of running the government, and the economy was largely dependent on foreign expertise. Abroad, three of its neighbors--Southern Rhodesia and the Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola--remained under white-dominated rule. Southern Rhodesia's white-ruled government unilaterally declared independence in November, 1965. In addition, Zambia shared a border with South African-controlled South-West Africa (now Namibia). Zambia's sympathies lay with forces opposing colonial or white-dominated rule, particularly in Southern Rhodesia. During the next decade, it actively supported movements such as the National Union for Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), the African National Congress of South Africa (ANC), and the South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO).

Conflicts with Rhodesia (so re-named from Southern Rhodesia) resulted in the closing of Zambia's borders with that country and severe problems with international transport and power supply. However, the Kariba hydroelectric station on the Zambezi River provided sufficient capacity to satisfy the country's requirements for electricity (despite the fact that the hydro control center was on the Rhodesian side of the border). A railroad to the Tanzanian port of Dar es Salaam, built with Chinese assistance, reduced Zambian dependence on railroad lines south to South Africa and west through an increasingly troubled Angola. Until the completion of the railroad, however, Zambia's major artery for imports and the critical export of copper was along the TanZam Road, running from Zambia to the port cities in Tanzania.

By the late 1970s, Mozambique and Angola had attained independence from Portugal. Zimbabwe achieved independence in accordance with the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement, but Zambia's problems were not solved. Civil war in the former Portuguese colonies generated an influx of refugees and caused continuing transportation problems. The Benguela railway, which extended west through Angola, was essentially closed to traffic from Zambia by the late 1970s. Zambia's strong support for the ANC, which had its external headquarters in Lusaka, created security problems as South Africa raided ANC targets in Zambia.

In the mid-1970s, the price of copper, Zambia's principal export, suffered a severe decline worldwide. In Zambia's situation, the cost of transporting the copper great distances to market was an additional strain. Zambia turned to foreign and international lenders for relief, but as copper prices remained depressed, it became increasingly difficult to service its growing debt. By the mid-1990s, despite limited debt relief, Zambia's per capita foreign debt remained among the highest in the world.

سياست

کينډۍ:Morepolitics Politics of Zambia takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Zambia is both head of state and head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. Zambia (formerly Northern Rhodesia) became a republic immediately upon attaining independence in October 1964.

اداري وېشنې

Main article: Provinces of Zambia, Districts of Zambia

Zambia is divided into nine provinces, each administered by an appointed deputy minister who essentially performs the duties of a governor. The provinces are divided into 56 districts.

The provinces are: Central, Copperbelt, Eastern, Luapula, Lusaka (home of the capital city, Lusaka), Northern, North-Western, Southern, and Western.

Districts: see Districts of Zambia

زده کړې

  • Lower Education

Schooling usually falls into three levels - Primary (Years 1 to 7), Junior Secondary (Years 8 to 9) and Upper Secondary (Years 10 to 12). So-called "Basic" schools teach Years 1 to 9, as Year 9 is considered to be a decent level of schooling for the majority of children; however, schooling is only free up to Year 7 and most children drop out then.

Both government and private schools exist in Zambia. The private school system began largely as a result of Christian mission efforts during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Private schools operate under either the British or American way of schooling.

  • Higher Education

Educational opportunities beyond high school are very limited in Zambia. There are few schools offering higher education and most Zambians cannot afford the fees. The University of Zambia is the primary institution of higher learning.

Several Teacher Training Colleges offer two-year programs beyond high school, and there are several Christian schools which offer seminary-level training.

See the following:

جغرافيه

Map of Zambia
آرنۍ ليکنه: Geography of Zambia

Zambia is a landlocked country in southern Africa, with a tropical climate and consists mostly of high plateau with some hills and mountains.

Zambia is drained by two major river basins: the Zambezi River basin, in the south; and the Congo River basin, in the north. Of the two basins, the part of Zambia drained by the Zambezi River basin is about three-quarters of the country's total area. The part drained by the Congo River basin is about a quarter of the country's total area.

Zambezi River basin

In the Zambezi River basin, there are four major rivers that either run through Zambia or form the country's borders with its neighbours: the Kafue, the Luangwa, the Kwando and the Zambezi. The last three form part of Zambia's southern borders. The Kwando River forms Zambia's southwestern border with Angola, then it runs eastwards along the northern boundary of Namibia's Caprivi Strip before spreading into the Linyanti Marshes, which finally drain eastwards into the Zambezi. From its confluence with the Kwando, the Zambezi flows eastwards, forming the whole of Zambia's border with Zimbabwe. The other two rivers, Kafue and Luangwa, lie entirely within Zambia and are major tributaries of the Zambezi. Their confluences with the Zambezi are on Zambia's Zimbabwean border at Chirundu (for the Kafue) and Luangwa town (for the Luangwa River). Before its confluence, the Luangwa River forms part of Zambia's border with Mozambique. From Luangwa town, the Zambezi leaves Zambia and flows into Mozambique, and eventually spills its waters into the Indian Ocean's Mozambique Channel.

The Zambezi falls 360 feet (100 m) over the one-mile wide (1.6 km) Victoria Falls, located in the SW corner of the country and later fills the mighty Lake Kariba.

The Zambezi Valley, running along the southern border, is both deep and wide. Moving northwards the terrain shifts into a high plateau ranging from 3,000-4,000 feet (900–1,200 m) up to over 6,000 feet (1,800 m) in the northern area of the Copperbelt. In the east, the Luangwa valley curves its way south with hills on either side until it enters the Zambezi.In the west, large plains are a key geographic feature, flooding the western plains during the annual rainy season (typically October though April).

Congo River basin

Zambia hosts two major rivers from the Congo River basin: the Chambeshi and the Luapula. The latter forms part of Zambia's border with the Democratic Republic of Congo. The Chambeshi lies entirely within Zambia and is the furthest headstream of the Congo River. It flows into the Bangweulu Wetlands, which provide the waters that form the Luapula River. The Luapula flows southward then westward before it turns northward until it enters Lake Mweru. The lake's other major tributary is the Kalungwishi River, which flows into it from the east. The Luvua River drains Lake Mweru, flowing out of the northern end.

Lake Tanganyika is the other major hydrographic feature that belongs to the Congo River basin. The lake's southeastern end receives water from the Kalambo River, which forms part of Zambia's border with Tanzania. This river has Africa's second highest uninterrupted waterfall, the Kalambo Falls. (The continent's highest waterfalls is the Tugela Falls of South Africa.)

اقتصاد

آرنۍ ليکنه: Economy of Zambia

Over 70 percent of Zambians live in poverty. Per capita annual incomes are currently at about one-half their levels at independence and, at $395, place the country among the world's poorest nations. Social indicators continue to decline, particularly in measurements of life expectancy at birth (about 37 years) and maternal mortality (729 per 100,000 pregnancies). The country's rate of economic growth cannot support rapid population growth or the strain which HIV/AIDS related issues (i.e., rising medical costs, decline in worker productivity) place on government resources. Zambia is also one of Sub-Saharan Africa's most highly urbanized countries. Almost one-half of the country's 10 million people are concentrated in a few urban zones strung along the major transportation corridors, while rural areas are underpopulated. Unemployment and underemployment are serious problems.

HIV/AIDS is the nation's greatest problem, with 17% prevalence among the adult population. HIV/AIDS will continue to ravage Zambian economic, political, cultural, and social development for the foreseeable future.

Once a middle-income country, Zambia began to slide into poverty in the 1970s when copper prices declined on world markets. The socialist government made up for falling revenue with several abortive attempts at International Monetary Fund structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), which ended after popular outcries from the people. After democratic multi-party elections, the Chiluba government (1991-2001) came to power in November 1991 committed to an economic reform program. The government privatized most of the parastatals (state-owned corporations), maintained positive real interest rates, eliminated exchange controls, and endorsed free market principles. Corruption grew dramatically under the Chiluba government. It remains to be seen whether the Mwanawasa government will be aggressive in continuing economic reform. Zambia is still dealing with economic reform issues such as the size of the public sector and improving Zambia's social sector delivery systems. NGOs and other groups have contended that the SAPs, in Zambia and other countries, have had very detrimental effects on the poor.[۱] Zambia's total foreign debt exceeded $6 billion when the country qualified for Highly Indebted Poor Country Initiative (HIPC) debt relief in 2000, contingent upon meeting certain performance criteria. Initially, Zambia hoped to reach the HIPC completion point, and benefit from substantial debt forgiveness, in late 2003. In January 2003, the Zambian Government informed the IMF and World Bank that it wished to renegotiate some of the agreed performance criteria calling for privatization of the Zambia National Commercial Bank and the national telephone and electricity utilities. Although agreements were reached on these issues, subsequent overspending on civil service wages delayed Zambia's final HIPC debt forgiveness from late 2003 to early 2005, at the earliest. In an effort to reach HIPC completion in 2004, the government drafted an austerity budget for 2004, freezing civil service salaries and increasing a number of taxes. The labor movement and other components of civil society have objected to the sacrifices called for in the budget, and, in some cases, the role of the international financial institutions in demanding austerity.

The Zambian economy has historically been based on the copper mining industry. Output of copper had fallen, however, to a low of 228,000 metric tons in 1998, after a 30-year decline in output due to lack of investment, low copper prices, and uncertainty over privatization. In 2002, following privatization of the industry, copper production rebounded to 337,000 metric tons. Improvements in the world copper market have magnified the effect of this volume increase on revenues and foreign exchange earnings.

The Zambian Government is pursuing an economic diversification program to reduce the economy's reliance on the copper industry. This initiative seeks to exploit other components of Zambia's rich resource base by promoting agriculture, tourism, gemstone mining, and hydro power. In 2003, nonmetal exports increased by 25%, and accounted for 38% of all export earnings, up from 35%.

Demographics & People Groups

دوتنه:Zambian Church by spooceman.jpg
A thatched roof Church in a Zambian Village
دوتنه:Zambian Field by spooceman.jpg
Zambian Field
آرنۍ ليکنه: Demographics of Zambia

Zambia's population is comprised of about 72 Bantu-speaking ethnic groups but almost 90% of Zambians belong to the eight main ethnolinguistic groups, which are the Bemba, Nyanja-Chewa, Tonga, Lunda, Luvale, Kaonde, Nkoya and Lozi. Each ethnic group is concentrated in a particular geographic region of the country and many groups are very small and not as well known. Most Zambians are subsistence farmers. The predominant religion is Christianity which is also the official national religion. Expatriates, mostly British (about 15,000) or South African, live mainly in Lusaka and in the Copperbelt in northern Zambia, where they are employed in mines and related activities. Zambia also has a small but economically important Asian population, most of whom are Indians. In recent years over 300 dispossesed white farmers left Zimbabwe at the invitation of the Zambian government and have taken up farming in the southern region. The country is 44% urban. The HIV/AIDS epidemic is ravaging Zambia. Nearly 1 million Zambians are HIV positive or have AIDS. An estimated 100,000 died of the epidemic in 2004. Over a half-million Zambian children have been orphaned. Life expectancy at birth is just under 40.

مذهب

Zambia's constitution identifies the country as a Christian nation, but a variety of religious traditions exist. Traditional religious thought blends easily with Christian beliefs in many of the country's syncretic churches. Islam also has a visible presence especially in urban settings.

Within the Christian community, a variety of denominations can be found: Roman Catholic, Anglican, Pentecostal, Lutheran, a variety of Evangelical denominations. These grew, adjusted and prospered from the original missionary settlements (Portuguese and Catholicism in the east from Mozambique) and Anglican (English and Scottish influences) from the south. Except for some technical positions (e.g. physicians), western missionary roles have been assumed by native believers. After Frederick Chiluba (a pentecostal Christian) became President in 1991, Pentecostal congregations sprouted around the country.

Zambia also has a very small Jewish community, mostly of Ashkenazic members of the White community. However there have been notable members such as Simon Zukas, MP and a member of United National Independence Party.

فرهڼ/کلتور

Zambia's present-day culture exhibits a blend of historical and cultural features from the past as well as the present. Traditional African practices and understandings continue to influence many aspects of Zambian culture. The impact of the colonial era can also be seen in the lives of the people. Finally, present-day global expressions and forces contribute to the cultural landscape.

  • Music of Zambia: traditional, popular, Christian
  • Traditional Zambian ceremonies and rituals: 'Ncwala' (Eastern Province)'Umutomboko' (Luapula Province), 'Kuomboka' (Western Province)and other dances such as 'Cing'ande' (in Sothern Province).

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