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[[انځور:Compact disc.svg|thumb|left|200px|ټيكلى]]
A '''Compact Disc''' (also known as a '''CD''') is an [[optical disc]] used to store [[Data (computing)|digital data]]. It was originally developed to store sound recordings exclusively, but later it also allowed the preservation of other types of data. Audio CDs have been commercially available since October 1982. In 2009, they remain the standard physical storage medium for [[Sound recording and reproduction|audio]].


Standard CDs have a diameter of 120 mm and can hold up to 80 minutes of uncompressed audio (700 MB of data). The [[Mini CD]] has various diameters ranging from 60 to 80 mm; they are sometimes used for CD singles or device drivers, storing up to 24 minutes of audio.


The technology was eventually adapted and expanded to encompass data storage [[CD-ROM]], write-once audio and data storage [[CD-R]], rewritable media [[CD-RW]], Video Compact Discs ([[VCD]]), Super Video Compact Discs ([[SVCD]]), PhotoCD, PictureCD, CD-i, and Enhanced CD.


CD-ROMs and CD-Rs remain widely used technologies in the [[computer industry]]. The CD and its extensions are successful: in 2004, worldwide sales of CD audio, CD-ROM, and CD-R reached about 30 billion discs. By 2007, 200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6950845.stm Compact Disc hits 25th birthday]</ref>


== History ==
The compact disc is a spin-off of the [[Laserdisc]] technology. Philips publicly demonstrated a prototype of an optical digital audio disc at a press conference called "Philips Introduce Compact Disc"<ref name=BBC6950933>{{cite web
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6950933.stm
|title=How the CD was developed
|author=
|publisher=BBC News
|date=2007-08-17
|accessdate=2007-08-17
}}</ref>
in [[Eindhoven]],
[[The Netherlands]] on March 8, 1979.<ref name=PhilipsHistorical>{{cite web
|url=http://www.philipsmuseumeindhoven.nl/phe/products/e_cd.htm
|title=Philips Compact Disc
|author=
|publisher=Philips
|date=
|accessdate=2009-02-14
}}</ref> Three years earlier, [[Sony]] first publicly demonstrated an optical digital audio disc in September 1976. In September 1978, they demonstrated an optical digital audio disc with a 150 minute playing time, and with specifications of 44,056 Hz sampling rate, 16-bit linear resolution, [[Cross-interleaved Reed-Solomon coding|cross-interleaved]] [[error correction]] code, that were similar to those of the Compact Disc introduced in 1982. Technical details of Sony's digital audio disc were presented during the 62nd [[Audio Engineering Society|AES]] Convention, held on March 13-16, 1979 in [[Brussels]].<ref name=SonyHistorical>{{cite web
|url=http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=2912
|title=A Long Play Digital Audio Disc System
|author=
|publisher=AES
|date=
|accessdate=2009-02-14
}}</ref>


Later that year, [[Sony]] and [[Philips Consumer Electronics]] (Philips) set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new digital audio disc. The task force, led by prominent members [[Kees Schouhamer Immink]] and [[Toshitada Doi]] ([[:ja:土井利忠 (技術者)|土井利忠]]), progressed the research into [[laser]] technology and [[optical discs]] that had been started independently by Philips and Sony in 1977 and 1975, respectively.<ref name="BBC6950933" />
After a year of experimentation and discussion, the taskforce produced the ''[[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]]'', the Compact Disc standard. Philips contributed the general [[manufacturing]] [[Industrial process|process]], based on video Laserdisc technology. Philips also contributed [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation]] (EFM), which offers both a long playing time and a high resilience against disc defects such as scratches and fingerprints, while Sony contributed the [[error-correction]] method, [[Cross-Interleaved Reed-Solomon Coding|CIRC]]. The ''Compact Disc Story'',<ref name=Immink>{{cite journal
|url=http://www.exp-math.uni-essen.de/~immink/pdf/cdstory.htm
|title=The CD Story
|author=Kees A. Schouhamer Immink
|journal=Journal of the AES
|volume=46
|pages=458–465
|year=1998
|accessdate=2007-02-09
}}</ref> told by a former member of the taskforce, gives background information on the many technical decisions made, including the choice of the sampling frequency, playing time, and disc diameter.
The taskforce consisted of around four to eight persons,<ref name=Immink2>{{cite journal
|url=http://www.exp-math.uni-essen.de/~immink/pdf/beethoven.htm
|title=Shannon, Beethoven, and the Compact Disc
|author=Kees A. Schouhamer Immink
|journal=IEEE Information Theory Newsletter
|pages=42–46
|year=2007
|accessdate=2007-12-12
}}</ref><ref name=Knopper>{{cite journal
|title=Appetite for Self-Destruction: The Rise and Fall of the Record Industry in the Digital Age
|author=Steve Knopper
|publisher=Free Press/Simon & Schuster
|date=2009-01-07
|accessdate=2009-038-17
}}</ref>
though according to Philips, the compact disc was thus "invented collectively by a large group of people working as a team."<ref name=PhilDoss>{{cite web
|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20080129201342/www.research.philips.com/newscenter/dossier/optrec/beethoven.html
|title=The Inventor of the CD
|author=
|work=[http://web.archive.org/web/20080129201342/www.research.philips.com/newscenter/dossier/optrec/beethoven.html Philips research (from cache)]
|date=
|accessdate=2009-01-16
}}</ref>


The first test CD was pressed in Hannover, Germany by the Polydor Pressing Operations plant in 1981. The disc contained a recording of [[Richard Strauss]]'s [[Eine Alpensinfonie]], played by the [[Berlin Philharmonic]] and conducted by [[Herbert von Karajan]].<ref>{{cite press release |url = http://www.research.philips.com/newscenter/dossier/optrec/firstcds.html | title = Optical Recording | publisher = Royal Philips Electronics}}</ref> In August 1982 the real pressing was ready to begin in the new factory, not far from the place where [[Emil Berliner]] had produced his first gramophone record 93 years earlier. By now, Deutsche Grammophon, Berliner’s company and the publisher of the Strauss recording, had become a part of PolyGram. The first CD to be manufactured at the new factory was [[The Visitors (ABBA album)|The Visitors]] by [[ABBA]]. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geekzone.co.nz/content.asp?contentid=7304|title=And 25 years ago Philips introduced the CD|publisher=GeekZone|accessdate=2008-01-11}}</ref> The first album to be ''released'' on CD was Billy Joel's ''[[52nd Street (album)|52nd Street]]'', that reached the market alongside Sony's [[Compact Disc player|CD player]] CDP-101 on October 1, 1982 in Japan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sony.net/Fun/SH/1-20/h5.html|title=Sony History: A Great Invention 100 Years On|publisher=Sony|accessdate=2008-11-04}}</ref> Early the following year on March 2, 1983 CD players and discs (16 titles from CBS Records) were released in the United States and other markets. This event is often seen as the "Big Bang" of the digital audio revolution. The new audio disc was enthusiastically received, especially in the early-adopting [[European classical music|classical music]] and [[audiophile]] communities and its handling quality received particular praise. As the price of players sank rapidly, the CD began to gain popularity in the larger popular and rock music markets. The first artist to sell a million copies on CD was Dire Straits, with its 1985 album ''[[Brothers in Arms (album)|Brothers in Arms]]''.<ref>''[[Maxim (magazine)|Maxim]]'', 2004</ref> The first major artist to have his entire catalogue converted to CD was David Bowie, whose 15 studio albums were made available by RCA in February 1985, along with four Greatest Hits albums.<ref>The New Schwann Record & Tape Guide Volume 37 No. 2 February 1985</ref> In 1988, 400 million CDs were manufactured by 50 pressing plants around the world.<ref>MAC Audio News. No. 178, November 1989. pp 19-21 Glenn Baddeley. ''November 1989 News Update''. Melbourne Audio Club Inc.</ref> To date, the biggest selling CD (as opposed to the biggest selling title) is Beatles "1", released in November 2000, with worldwide sales of 30 million discs.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}}


The CD was planned to be the successor of the [[gramophone record]] for playing music, rather than primarily as a data storage medium. Only later did the concept of an "audio file" arise, and its generalization to a data file. From its origins as a musical format, CDs have grown to encompass other applications. In June 1985, the computer readable [[CD-ROM]] (read-only memory) and, in 1990, [[CD-R]]ecordable were introduced, also developed by both Sony and Philips.<ref>The world's first CD-R was made by the Japanese firm [[Taiyo Yuden|Taiyo Yuden Co., Ltd.]] in 1988 as part of the joint Philips-Sony development effort.</ref> The CD's compact format has largely replaced the audio [[Compact Cassette|cassette]] player in new automobile applications, and recordable CDs are an alternative to tape for recording music and copying music albums without defects introduced in compression used in other digital recording methods. Other newer video formats such as DVD and Blu-ray have used the same form factor as CDs, and video players can usually play audio CDs as well.


With the advent of the [[MP3]] in the 2000s, the sales of CDs has dropped in seven out of the last eight years. In 2008, large label CD sales dropped 20%,<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Music Sales Decline for Seventh Time in Eight Years: Digital Downloads Can't Offset 20% Plunge in CD Sales |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123075988836646491.html?mod=rss_whats_news_technology&mg=com-wsj |work= |publisher=Wall Street Journal |date=January 2, 2009 |accessdate=4 March 2009 }}</ref> although independent and DIY music sales may be tracking better according to figures released March 30, 2009.<ref>http://indiemusicstop.wordpress.com/2009/04/01/cd-baby-payouts-surge/</ref>


== Physical details ==
[[Image:CD layers.svg|thumb|Diagram of CD layers.<br /> A. A polycarbonate disc layer has the data encoded by using bumps.<br /> B. A reflective layer reflects the laser back.<br />
C. A lacquer layer is used to prevent oxidation.<br/>
D. Artwork is screen printed on the top of the disc.<br />
E. A laser beam reads the polycarbonate disc, is reflected back, and read by the player.]]


A CD is made from 1.2&nbsp;mm thick, almost-pure [[polycarbonate]] plastic and weighs approximately 15–20 grams.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cd-testing.com/#i17|title=Q. How do you calculate Moment of Inertia?|accessdate=2009-08-19|quote=a typical disc with ... weight of 15 grams ... maximum allowed weight (20g)}}</ref> From the center outward components are at the center (spindle) hole, the first-transition area (clamping ring), the clamping area (stacking ring), the second-transition area (mirror band), the information (data) area, and the rim.


A thin layer of aluminium or, more rarely, gold is applied to the surface to make it reflective, and is protected by a film of lacquer that is normally spin coated directly on top of the reflective layer, upon which the label print is applied. Common printing methods for CDs are [[screen-printing]] and [[offset printing]].


CD data are stored as a series of tiny indentations known as “''pits''”, encoded in a spiral track molded into the top of the polycarbonate layer. The areas between pits are known as “lands”. Each pit is approximately 100&nbsp;[[Nanometre|nm]] deep by 500&nbsp;nm wide, and varies from 850&nbsp;nm to 3.5&nbsp;[[Micrometre|µm]] in length.


[[Image:CD drive lens.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The optical lens of a CD drive.]]


[[Category:ټيكلى| ]]
The distance between the tracks, the pitch, is 1.6&nbsp;µm. A CD is read by focusing a 780&nbsp;nm [[wavelength]] ([[near infrared]]) [[semiconductor laser]] through the bottom of the polycarbonate layer. The change in height between pits and lands results in a difference in intensity in the light reflected. By measuring the intensity change with a [[photodiode]], the data can be read from the disc.
[[Category:سولګر]]

The pits and lands themselves do not directly represent the zeros and ones of [[binary data]]. Instead, [[Non-return-to-zero, inverted]] (NRZI) encoding is used: a change from pit to land or land to pit indicates a one, while no change indicates a zero. This in turn is decoded by reversing the Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation used in mastering the disc, and then reversing the [[Cross-Interleaved Reed-Solomon Coding]], finally revealing the raw data stored on the disc.

CDs are susceptible to damage from both daily use and environmental exposure. Pits are much closer to the label side of a disc, so that defects and dirt on the clear side can be out of focus during playback. Consequently, CDs suffer more scratch damage on the label side whereas scratches on the clear side can be repaired by refilling them with similar refractive plastic, or by careful polishing. Initial music CDs were known to suffer from "[[CD rot]]", or "laser rot", in which the internal reflective layer degrades. When this occurs the CD may become unplayable.

=== Disc shapes and diameters ===
[[Image:Small cdisk ubt.jpeg|thumb|right|A Mini-CD is 8 centimetres in diameter.]]
The digital data on a CD begin at the center of the disc and proceeds toward the edge, which allows adaptation to the different size formats available. Standard CDs are available in two sizes. By far the most common is 120&nbsp;mm in diameter, with a 74- or 80-minute audio capacity and a 650 or 700&nbsp;MB data capacity. This diameter has also been adopted by later formats, including [[Super Audio CD]], [[DVD]], [[HD DVD]], and [[Blu-ray Disc]]. 80&nbsp;mm discs ("[[Mini CD]]s") were originally designed for CD [[single (music)|singles]] and can hold up to 21&nbsp;minutes of music or 184&nbsp;MB of data but never really became popular. Today, nearly every single is released on a 120&nbsp;mm CD, called a [[Maxi single]].

=== "Shaped CD" ===
Novelty CDs are also available in numerous shapes and sizes, and are used mostly for marketing. A common variant is a "business card" CD, a single with portions removed at the top and bottom to more closely resemble a business card.

{| class="wikitable"
! Physical size
! Audio Capacity
! CD-ROM Data Capacity
! Note
|-
| 12&nbsp;cm || 74–99 min || 650–870 [[Megabyte|MB]] || Standard size
|-
| 8&nbsp;cm || 21–24 min || 185–210 MB || Mini-CD size
|-
| 85x54&nbsp;mm - 86x64&nbsp;mm || ~6 min || 10-65 MB || "Business card" size
|}

== Logical formats ==
=== Audio CD ===
{{main|Red Book (audio CD standard)}}

The logical format of an audio CD (officially Compact Disc Digital Audio or CD-DA) is described in a document produced by the format's joint creators, Sony and Philips in 1980. The document is known colloquially as the "[[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]]" after the color of its cover. The format is a two-channel 16-bit [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] encoding at a 44.1&nbsp;kHz [[sampling rate]] per channel. Four-channel sound is an allowable option within the Red Book format, but has never been implemented. [[Monaural]] audio has no existing standard on a Red Book CD; mono-source material is usually presented as two identical channels on a 'stereo' track.

The selection of the sample rate was primarily based on the need to reproduce the audible frequency range of 20&nbsp;Hz - 20&nbsp;kHz. The [[Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem]] states that a sampling rate of more than double the maximum frequency of the signal to be recorded is needed, resulting in a required rate of at least 40&nbsp;kHz. The exact sampling rate of 44.1&nbsp;kHz was inherited from a method of converting digital audio into an analog video signal for storage on [[U-matic|U-matic video tape]], which was the most affordable way to transfer data from the recording studio to the CD manufacturer at the time the CD specification was being developed. The device that turns an analog audio signal into PCM audio, which in turn is changed into an analog video signal is called a [[PCM adaptor]]. This technology could store six samples (three samples per stereo channel) in a single horizontal line. A standard [[NTSC]] video signal has 245 usable lines per field, and 59.94 fields/s, which works out at 44,056 samples/s/stereo channel. Similarly, [[PAL]] has 294 lines and 50 fields, which gives 44,100 samples/s/stereo channel. This system could either store 14-bit samples with some error correction, or 16-bit samples with almost no error correction.

There was a long debate over whether to use 14-bit (Philips) or 16-bit (Sony) [[quantization]], and 44,056 or 44,100 samples/s (Sony) or around 44,000 samples/s (Philips). When the Sony/Philips task force designed the Compact Disc, Philips had already developed a 14-bit [[Digital-to-analog converter|D/A converter]], but Sony insisted on 16-bit. In the end, 16 bits and 44.1 kilosamples per second prevailed. Philips found a way to produce 16-bit quality using their 14-bit DAC by using four times [[oversampling]].

==== Storage capacity and playing time ====
The partners aimed at a playing time of 60 minutes with a disc diameter of 100&nbsp;mm (Sony) or
115&nbsp;mm (Philips).<ref name=Immink2/>
Von Karajan suggested extending the capacity to 74 minutes to
accommodate [[Wilhelm Furtwängler]]'s recording of [[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Beethoven’s 9th Symphony]] from the 1951 [[Bayreuth Festival]].<ref name=PhilBeet>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.marantzphilips.nl/The_cd_laser
|title=Beethoven's Ninth Symphony of greater importance than technology
|author=Philips
|accessdate=2007-02-09
}}</ref>
<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.aes.org/historical/store/oralhistory/?code=OHP-016-DVD
|title=AES Oral History Project: Kees A.Schouhamer Immink
|author=AES
|accessdate=2008-07-29
}}</ref>

The extra 14-minute playing time subsequently required changing to a 120&nbsp;mm disc. Kees Immink, Philips' chief engineer, however, denies this, claiming that the increase was motivated by technical considerations, and that even after the increase in size, the Furtwängler recording would not have fit on one of the earliest CDs.<ref name=Immink /><ref name=Immink2 /> <!-- [http://www.exp-math.uni-essen.de/~immink/pdf/cdstory.pdf] -->
According to a [[Sunday Tribune]] interview,<ref name="ferguscassidy">{{cite news
| url = http://www.ferguscassidy.ie/ethos-23-Oct-2005.html
| title = Great lengths | last = Cassidy | first = Fergus
| format = reprint
| publisher = [[Sunday Tribune]]
| date = 2005-10-23| accessdate = 2007-12-21}}</ref> the story is slightly more involved. In 1979, Philips owned [[Polygram]], one of the world’s largest distributors of music. Polygram had set up a large experimental CD plant in Hanover, Germany, which could produce huge numbers of CDs having, of course, a diameter of 115&nbsp;mm. Sony did not yet have such a facility. If Sony had agreed on the 115-mm disc, Philips would have had a significant competitive edge in the market. Sony decided that something had to be done. The long playing time of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony imposed by [[Norio Ohga|Ohga]] was used to push Philips to accept 120&nbsp;mm, so that Philips’ Polygram lost its edge on disc fabrication.<ref name="ferguscassidy"/>

The 74-minute playing time of a CD, which was longer than the 20 minutes per side<ref>{{cite book|last=Hoffmann|first=Frank|coauthors=Ferstler, Howard|title=Encyclopedia of recorded sound|publisher=CRC Press|date=2005|pages=1289|isbn=041593835X, 9780415938358}}</ref><ref>Goldmark, Peter. ''Maverick inventor; My Turbulent Years at CBS.'' New York: Saturday Review Press, 1973.</ref> typical of long-playing (LP) vinyl albums, was often used to the CD’s advantage during the early years when CDs and LPs vied for commercial sales. CDs would often be released with one or more bonus tracks, enticing consumers to buy the CD for the extra material. However, attempts to combine double LPs onto one CD occasionally resulted in an opposing situation in which the CD would actually offer fewer tracks than the LP equivalent. An example is the 1987 album ''[[Kiss Me, Kiss Me, Kiss Me]]'' by [[The Cure]], which states in the CD liner notes: "The track ''Hey You!!!'' which appears on the double album and cassette has been omitted so as to facilitate a single compact disc." The 2006 re-release of this album saw the inclusion of the missing track.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.the-trades.com/article.php?id=4719
| title = <nowiki>Music Review: The Cure, "Kiss Me, Kiss Me, Kiss Me" [Original Recording Remastered]</nowiki>
| first = Raul | last = Burriel | publisher = [http://www.the-trades.com The Trades]
| date = 2006-08-06 | accessdate = 2007-12-21}}</ref> Another example is the original late-1980s [[Warner Bros. Records]] reissue of [[Fleetwood Mac]]'s ''[[Tusk (album)|Tusk]]'' album, which substituted the long album version of "Sara" with the shorter single version. Enough complaints were lodged to eventually convince Warner Bros. to remaster the album in the mid-1990s with the original contents intact.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:jnfuxqrald6e
| title = <nowiki>Tusk [Expanded] Overview</nowiki>
| author = Stephen Thomas Erlewine
| publisher = [[Allmusic]]| accessdate = 2007-12-21}}</ref>

==== Main physical parameters ====
The main parameters of the CD (taken from the September 1983 issue of the [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]]) are as follows:
*Scanning velocity: 1.2–1.4 m/s ([[constant linear velocity]])&nbsp;– equivalent to approximately 500 rpm at the inside of the disc, and approximately 200 rpm at the outside edge. (A disc played from beginning to end slows down during playback.)
*Track pitch: 1.6&nbsp;µm
*Disc diameter 120&nbsp;mm
*Disc thickness: 1.2&nbsp;mm
*Inner radius program area: 25&nbsp;mm
*Outer radius program area: 58&nbsp;mm
*Center spindle hole diameter: 15&nbsp;mm

The program area is 86.05&nbsp;cm² and the length of the recordable spiral is (86.05&nbsp;cm²&nbsp;/&nbsp;1.6&nbsp;µm)&nbsp;=&nbsp;5.38&nbsp;km. With a scanning speed of 1.2&nbsp;m/s, the playing time is 74&nbsp;minutes, or around 650&nbsp;MB of data on a CD-ROM. If the disc diameter were only 115&nbsp;mm, the maximum playing time would have been 68 minutes, i.e., less six minutes. A disc with data packed slightly more densely is tolerated by most players (though some old ones fail). Using a linear velocity of 1.2&nbsp;m/s and a track pitch of 1.5&nbsp;µm leads to a playing time of 80&nbsp;minutes, or a capacity of 700&nbsp;MB. Even higher capacities on non-standard discs (up to 99 minutes) are available at least as recordables, but generally the tighter the tracks are squeezed, the worse the compatibility.

==== Data structure ====
The smallest entity in a CD is called a ''frame'', which consists of 33 bytes and contains six complete 16-bit stereo samples (two bytes × two channels × six samples: equals 24 bytes). The other nine bytes consist of eight CIRC error-correction bytes and one [[compact disc subcode|subcode]] byte, used for control and display. Each byte is translated into a 14-bit word using eight-to-fourteen modulation, which alternates with three-bit merging words. In total there are 33 × (14 + 3) = 561 bits. A 27-bit unique synchronization word is added, so that the number of bits in a frame totals 588 (of which only 192 bits are music).

These 588-bit frames are in turn grouped into sectors. Each sector contains 98 frames, totaling 98 × 24 = 2352 bytes of music. The CD is played at a speed of 75 sectors per second, which results in 176,400 bytes per second. Divided by two channels and two bytes per sample, this results in a sample rate of 44,100 samples per second.

For CD-ROM data discs, the physical frame and sector sizes are the same. Since error concealment cannot be applied to non-audio data in case the CIRC error correction fails to recover the user data, a third layer of error correction is defined, reducing the payload to 2048 bytes per sector for the Mode-1 CD-ROM format. To increase the data-rate for [[Video CD]], Mode-2 CD-ROM, the third layer has been omitted, increasing the payload to 2336 user-available bytes per sector, only 16 bytes (for synchronization and header data) less than available in Red-Book audio.

===== "Frame" =====
For the Red Book stereo audio CD, the time format is commonly measured in minutes, seconds and frames (mm:ss:ff), where one frame corresponds to one sector, or 1/75th of a second of stereo sound. In this context, the term ''frame'' is erroneously applied in editing applications and does not denote the physical frame described above. In editing and extracting, the frame is the smallest addressable time interval for an audio CD, meaning that track start and end positions can only be defined in 1/75 second steps.

===== Logical structure =====
The largest entity on a CD is called a track. A CD can contain up to 99 tracks (including a data track for [[mixed mode]] discs). Each track can in turn have up to 100 indexes, though players which handle this feature are rarely found outside of [[pro audio]], particularly radio broadcasting. The vast majority of songs are recorded under index 1, with the [[pre-gap]] being index 0. Sometimes [[hidden track]]s are placed at the end of the last track of the disc, often using index 2 or 3. This is also the case with some discs offering "101 sound effects", with 100 and 101 being indexed as two and three on track 99. The index, if used, is occasionally put on the track listing as a decimal part of the track number, such as 99.2 or 99.3. ([[Information Society (band)|Information Society]]'s ''[[Hack (album)|Hack]]'' was one of very few CD releases to do this, following a release with an equally-obscure CD+G feature.) The track and index structure of the CD carried forward to the DVD as title and chapter, respectively.

===== Manufacturing tolerances =====
Current manufacturing processes allow an audio CD to contain up to 80 minutes (variable from one replication plant to another) without requiring the content creator to sign a waiver releasing the plant owner from responsibility if the CD produced is marginally or entirely unreadable by some playback equipment. Thus, in current practice, maximum CD playing time has crept higher by reducing minimum engineering tolerances; by and large, this has not unacceptably reduced reliability.

==== CD-Text ====
{{Main|CD-Text}}
CD-Text is an extension of the Red Book specification for audio CD that allows for storage of additional text information (e.g., album name, song name, artist) on a standards-compliant audio CD. The information is stored either in the [[optical disc authoring#Lead-In|lead-in area]] of the CD, where there is roughly five kilobytes of space available, or in the [[Compact disc subcode|subcode]] channels R to W on the disc, which can store about 31 megabytes.

==== CD + Graphics ====
{{Main|CD+G}}
Compact Disc + Graphics (CD+G) is a special audio compact disc that contains graphics data in addition to the audio data on the disc.
The disc can be played on a regular audio CD player, but when played on a special CD+G player, can output a graphics signal (typically, the CD+G player is hooked up to a television set or a computer monitor); these graphics are almost exclusively used to display lyrics on a television set for [[karaoke]] performers to sing along with.

===== CD + Extended Graphics =====
{{Main|Compact Disc + Extended Graphics}}
Compact Disc + Extended Graphics (CD+EG, also known as CD+XG) is an improved variant of the [[#CD + Graphics|Compact Disc + Graphics]] (CD+G) format. Like CD+G, CD+EG utilizes basic CD-ROM features to display text and video information in addition to the music being played. This extra data is stored in [[Compact disc subcode|subcode]] channels R-W. Very few, if any, CD+EG discs have been published.

=== Super Audio CD ===
{{Main|Super Audio CD}}
Super Audio CD (SACD) is a high-resolution read-only [[optical disc|optical]] [[audio storage|audio disc]] format that provides much [[high fidelity|higher fidelity]] digital audio reproduction than the Red Book. Introduced in 1999, it was developed by Sony and Philips, the same companies that created the Red Book. SACD was in a [[format war]] with [[DVD-Audio]], but neither has replaced audio CDs.

In contrast to DVD-Audio, the SACD format has the feature of being able to produce hybrid discs; these discs contain the SACD audio stream as well as a standard audio CD layer which is playable in standard CD players, thus making them [[Backward compatibility|backward compatible]].

=== CD-MIDI ===
CD-[[Musical Instrument Digital Interface|MIDI]] is a format used to store music-performance data which upon playback is performed by electronic instruments that synthesize the audio. Hence, unlike Red Book, these recordings are not audio.

=== CD-ROM ===
{{main|CD-ROM}}
For the first few years of its existence, the Compact Disc was a medium used purely for audio. However, in 1985 the [[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow Book]] CD-ROM standard was established by Sony and Philips, which defined a non-volatile optical data [[computer storage|computer data storage]] medium using the same physical format as audio compact discs, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive.

=== Video CD (VCD) ===
{{main|Video CD}}
'''Video CD''' (VCD, View CD, and Compact Disc digital video) is a standard [[digital]] format for storing video media on a CD. VCDs are playable in dedicated VCD players, most modern [[DVD-Video]] players, personal computers, and some video game consoles.

The VCD standard was created in 1993 by Sony, Philips, [[Panasonic Corporation|Matsushita]], and [[JVC]] and is referred to as the [[White Book (CD standard)|White Book]] standard.

Overall picture quality is intended to be comparable to [[VHS]] video. Poorly compressed VCD video can sometimes be lower quality than VHS video, but VCD exhibits block artifacts rather than analog noise, and does not deteriorate further with each use, which may be preferable.

352x240 (or [[Source Input Format|SIF]]) resolution was chosen because it is half the vertical, and half the horizontal resolution of NTSC video. 352x288 is similarly one quarter PAL/SECAM resolution. This approximates the (overall) resolution of an analog VHS tape, which, although it has double the number of (vertical) scan lines, has a much lower horizontal resolution.

==== Super Video CD ====
{{main|Super Video CD}}
Super Video CD (Super Video Compact Disc or SVCD) is a format used for storing video media on standard compact discs. SVCD was intended as a successor to VCD and an alternative to DVD-Video, and falls somewhere between both in terms of technical capability and picture quality.

SVCD has two-thirds the [[display resolution|resolution]] of DVD, and over 2.7 times the resolution of VCD. One CD-R disc can hold up to 60 minutes of standard quality SVCD-format video. While no specific limit on SVCD video length is mandated by the specification, one must lower the video bit rate, and therefore quality, in order to accommodate very long videos. It is usually difficult to fit much more than 100 minutes of video onto one SVCD without incurring significant quality loss, and many hardware players are unable to play video with an instantaneous bit rate lower than 300 to 600 [[kilobits]] per second.

=== Photo CD ===
{{Main|Photo CD}}
Photo CD is a system designed by [[Kodak]] for digitizing and storing photos on a CD. Launched in 1992, the discs were designed to hold nearly 100 high quality images, scanned prints and slides using special proprietary encoding. Photo CD discs are defined in the [[Rainbow Books|Beige Book]] and conform to the [[CD-ROM]] XA and CD-i Bridge specifications as well. They are intended to play on CD-i players, Photo CD players and any computer with the suitable software irrespective of the [[operating system]]. The images can also be printed out on photographic paper with a special Kodak machine. This format is not to be confused with Kodak [[Picture CD]], which is a consumer product in CD-ROM format.

==== CD-i ====
{{Main|Green Book (CD-interactive standard)}}
The Philips "Green Book" specifies the standard for interactive multimedia compact discs designed for [[CD-i]] players. This format is unusual because it hides the initial tracks which contains the software and data files used by CD-i players by omitting the tracks from the disc's TOC (table of contents). This causes [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|audio CD]] players to skip the CD-i data tracks. This is different from the [[CD-i Ready]] format, which puts CD-i software and data into the [[Pregap#Computer Data in Pregap|pregap]] of track 1.

=== Enhanced CD ===
{{Main|Enhanced CD}}
Enhanced CD, also known as CD Extra and CD Plus, is a [[certification mark]] of the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] for various technologies that combine audio and computer data for use in both compact disc and [[CD-ROM]] players.

The primary data formats for Enhanced Compact Disc's are [[Mixed Mode CD|mixed mode]] ([[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow Book]]/[[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]]), [[CD-i]], hidden track, and multisession ([[Blue Book specification|Blue Book]]).

=== VinylDisc ===
{{Main|VinylDisc}}
VinylDisc is the hybrid of a standard Audio CD and the [[Gramophone record|vinyl record]]. The vinyl layer on the disc's label side can hold approximately three minutes of music.

== Manufacture ==
{{main|CD manufacturing}}

Replicated CDs are mass-produced initially using a hydraulic press. Small granules of raw polycarbonate plastic are fed into the press while under heat. A screw forces the liquefied plastic into the mold cavity. The mold closes with a metal stamper in contact with the disc surface. The plastic is allowed to cool and harden. Once opened, the disc substrate is removed from the mold by a robotic arm, and a 15&nbsp;mm diameter center hole (called a stacking ring) is removed. The cycle time, the time it takes to "stamp" one CD, is usually 2–3 seconds.

This method produces the clear plastic blank part of the disc. After a metallic reflecting layer (usually aluminum, but sometimes gold or other metals) is applied to the clear blank substrate, the disc goes under a UV light for curing and it is ready to go to press. To prepare to press a CD, a glass master is made, using a high-powered laser on a device similar to a CD writer. The glass master is a positive image of the desired CD surface (with the desired microscopic pits and lands). After testing, it is used to make a die by pressing it against a metal disc.

The die is a negative image of the glass master: several are typically made, depending on the number of pressing mills that are to be making the CD. The die then goes into a press and the physical image is imposed onto the blank CD, leaving a final positive image on the disc. A small amount of lacquer is then applied as a ring around the center of the disc, and fast spinning spreads it evenly over the surface. Edge protection lacquer is also applied before the disc is finished. The disc can then be printed and packed.

Manufactured CDs that are sold in stores are sealed via a process called "polywrapping" or shrink wrapping.

== Recordable CD ==
[[Image:Compact disc.jpg|thumb|700 [[Megabyte|MB]] CD-R]]
{{Main|CD-R}}
Recordable compact discs, [[CD-R]]s, are injection molded with a "blank" data spiral. A photosensitive dye is then applied, after which the discs are metalized and lacquer-coated. The write laser of the [[CD recorder]] changes the color of the dye to allow the read laser of a standard [[CD player]] to see the data, just as it would with a standard stamped disc. The resulting discs can be read by most CD-ROM drives and played in most audio CD players.

CD-R recordings are designed to be permanent. Over time the dye's physical characteristics may change, however, causing read errors and data loss until the reading device cannot recover with error correction methods. The design life is from 20 to 100 years, depending on the quality of the discs, the quality of the writing drive, and storage conditions. However, testing has demonstrated such degradation of some discs in as little as 18 months under normal storage conditions.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cdfreaks.com/news/CD-Recordable-discs-unreadable-in-less-than-two-years.html
|title=CD-R Unreadable in Less Than Two Years
|publisher=cdfreaks.com
|accessdate=2007-02-01
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20050204065340/http://www.pc-active.nl/toonArtikel.asp?artikelID=508
|title=CD-R ROT
|publisher=PC-Active.com via archive.org
|accessdate=2007-02-01
}}</ref> This failure is known as [[CD rot]]. CD-Rs follow the [[Rainbow Books|Orange Book]] standard.

=== Recordable Audio CD ===
The Recordable Audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder. These consumer audio CD recorders use SCMS ([[Serial Copy Management System]]), an early form of [[digital rights management]] (DRM), to conform to the AHRA ([[Audio Home Recording Act]]). The Recordable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-R due to (a) lower volume and (b) a 3% [[Audio Home Recording Act#AHRA Royalties|AHRA royalty]] used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy.<ref name="McFadden">{{cite web
|url=http://www.cdrfaq.org/
|title=CD-Recordable FAQ
|author=Andy McFadden
|date=2007-08-08
|accessdate=2007-09-20
}}</ref>

=== High Capacity Recordable CD ===
A higher density recording format that can hold about:
*98.5 minutes of audio on a 12&nbsp;cm disc (compared to about 80 minutes for Red Book audio).
*30 minutes of audio on an 8&nbsp;cm disc (compared to about 24 minutes for Red Book audio).

== ReWritable CD ==
{{Main|CD-RW}}
[[CD-RW]] is a re-recordable medium that uses a metallic alloy instead of a dye. The write laser in this case is used to heat and alter the properties (amorphous vs. crystalline) of the alloy, and hence change its reflectivity. A CD-RW does not have as great a difference in reflectivity as a pressed CD or a CD-R, and so many earlier CD audio players ''cannot'' read CD-RW discs, although ''most'' later CD audio players and stand-alone [[DVD]] players can. CD-RWs follow the [[Rainbow Books|Orange Book]] standard.

=== High Speed ReWritable CD ===
Due to technical limitations, the original ReWritable CD could be written no faster than 4x speed. High Speed ReWritable CD has a different design that permits writing at speeds ranging from 4x to 12x.

Original CD-RW drives can only write to original ReWritable CD discs. High Speed CD-RW drives can typically write to both original ReWritable CD discs and High Speed ReWritable CD discs. Both types of CD-RW discs can be read in most CD drives.

Even higher speed CD-RW discs, Ultra Speed (16x to 24x write speed) and Ultra Speed+ (32x write speed), are now available.

=== ReWritable Audio CD ===
The ReWritable Audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder, which won't (without modification) accept standard CD-RW discs. These consumer audio CD recorders use SCM[[Serial Copy Management System]] (SCMS), an early form of [[digital rights management]] (DRM), to conform to the United States' [[Audio Home Recording Act]] (AHRA). The ReWritable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-RW due to (a) lower volume and (b) a 3% [[Audio Home Recording Act#AHRA royalties|AHRA royalty]] used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy.<ref name="McFadden"/>

== Copy protection ==
{{main article|CD/DVD copy protection}}
The Red Book audio specification, except for a simple 'anti-copy' bit in the subcode, does not include any serious [[copy protection]] mechanism. Starting in early 2002, attempts were made by record companies to market "copy-protected" non-standard compact discs, which cannot be ripped, or copied, to hard drives or easily converted to MP3s. One major drawback to these copy-protected discs is that most will not play on either computer CD-ROM drives, or some standalone CD players that use CD-ROM mechanisms. Philips has stated that such discs are not permitted to bear the trademarked ''Compact Disc Digital Audio'' logo because they violate the Red Book specifications. Numerous copy-protection systems have been countered by readily available, often free, software.

== See also ==
{{multicol}}
* [[5.1 Music Disc]]
* [[Audio format]]
* [[Audio storage]]
* [[Bit rot]]
* [[CD bronzing]]
* [[CD-Text]]
* [[CD Video]]
* [[CD+G]]
* [[CD-RW]]
* [[Compact disc player]]
* [[Digipak]]
* [[Disk image emulator]]
* [[DualDisc]]
* [[DVD-Audio]]
{{multicol-break}}
* [[Enhanced CD]]
* [[HDCD]]
* [[Hi-Fi]]
* [[Home cinema]]
* [[Jewel case#Jewel case|Jewel case]]
* [[K2 High Definition]]
* [[Laserdisc]]
* [[MildDisc]]
* [[miniCD]]
* [[Shaped CD]]
* [[MP3 CD]]
* [[Optical disc]]
** [[Blu-ray]]
** [[DVD]]
{{multicol-break}}
* [[Rainbow books]]
** [[Red Book (audio CD standard)]]
** [[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)]]
* [[SPARS Code]] for information on the three-letter codes AAD, ADD, DAD, and DDD
* [[Super Audio CD]]
* [[Super Video CD]]
* [[Video CD]]
* [[Video Single Disc]]
{{multicol-end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Further reading ==
* du Gay, Paul, Stuart Hall, Linda Janes, et al. (1997). ''Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman''. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.
* [[Ecma International]]. [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-130.htm ''Standard ECMA-130: Data Interchange on Read-only 120&nbsp;mm Optical Data Disks (CD-ROM)''], 2nd edition (June 1996).
* Pohlmann, Kenneth C. (1992). [http://books.google.com/books?id=GkIaGZ0HWcMC ''The Compact Disc Handbook'']. Middleton, Wisconsin: A-R Editions. ISBN 0-89579-300-8.
* Peek, Hans et al. (2009) [http://www.springer.com/engineering/electronics/book/978-1-4020-9552-8 ''Origins and Successors of the Compact Disc'']. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. ISBN 978-1-4020-9552-8

== External links ==
{{commons|Compact disc}}

'''General Information'''
*[http://youtube.com/watch?v=ut_40U0t9pU Video] How Compact Discs are Manufactured

'''History'''
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20080129201342/www.research.philips.com/newscenter/dossier/optrec/beethoven.html Philips history of the CD (cache)]
*[http://www.sony.net/Fun/SH/1-20/h5.html Sony's CD history]
*[http://www.ip.philips.com/licensing/licensingprogramshistory/history_cdplayer_joint.html Patent History (CD Player)] - published by [[Philips]] 2005
* [http://www.ip.philips.com/licensing/licensingprogramshistory/history_cddisc_joint.html Patent History CD Disc] - published by [[Philips]] 2003
*[http://www.sony.co.jp/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-08.html Sony History, Chapter 8, This is the replacement of Gramophone record ! (第8章 レコードに代わるものはこれだ)] - [[Sony]] website in Japanese
*[http://www.soundfountain.com/amb/cd25years.html 25 YEARS Digital Audio Compact Disc]

{{Audio format}}
{{Sony Corp}}

[[Category:Compact disc| ]]
[[Category:Audio storage]]
[[Category:Video storage]]
[[Category:Digital audio]]
[[Category:1982 introductions]]
[[Category:High end audio]]
[[Category:Optical disc authoring]]


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