توکمپوهنه

توکمپوهنه د دوه نومونو توکم او پوهنې يو تړنګنوم دی. په انګرېزي ژبه يې اېتنولوژي (د يوناني نه اېتنوس, په مانا د "توکم، يا خلک") بولي. دا پوهنه د وګړپوهنې يوه څانګه ده او په دې کې د بېلابېلو توکمونو د اصل، د وېش سيمې، د تخنيکي پرمختګ، د ژبې، د دين، د ټولنيز جوړښت او د کلتور د شننو او سره پرتللو جاج اخيستل کېږي

Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "people, nation, race") is the branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the origins, distribution, technology, religion, language, and social structure of the ethnic, racial, and/or national divisions of humanity.

Scientific Discipline

Compared to ethnography, the study of single groups through direct contact with the culture, ethnology takes the research that ethnographers have compiled and then compares and contrasts different cultures. The term ethnology is credited to Adam Franz Kollár who used and defined it in his Historiae ivrisqve pvblici Regni Vngariae amoenitates published in Vienna in 1783. Kollár's interest in linguistic and cultural diversity was aroused by the situation in his native multi-lingual Kingdom of Hungary and his roots among its Slovaks, and by the shifts that began to emerge after the gradual retreat of the Ottoman Empire in the more distant Balkans.

Among the goals of ethnology have been the reconstruction of human history, and the formulation of cultural invariants, such as the incest taboo and culture change, and the formulation of generalizations about "human nature", a concept which has been criticized since the 19^th century by various philosophers (Hegel, Marx, structuralism, etc.). In some parts of the world ethnology has developed along independent paths of investigation and pedagogical doctrine, with cultural anthropology becoming dominant especially in the United States, and social anthropology in Great Britain. The distinction between the three terms is increasingly blurry. Ethnology has been considered an academic field since the late 18th century especially in Europe and is sometimes conceived of as any comparative study of human groups.

The 15th century "discovery of America" had an important role in the new Occidental interest toward the "Other", often qualified as "savages", which was either seen as a brutal barbarian or as a "noble savage". Thus, civilization was opposed in a dualist manner to barbary, a classic opposition constitutive of the even more commonly-shared ethnocentrism. The progress of ethnology, for example with Claude Lévi-Strauss's structural anthropology, led to the criticism of conceptions of a linear progress, or the pseudo-opposition between "societies with histories" and "societies without histories", judged too dependent on a limited view of history as constituted by accumulative growth.

Lévi-Strauss often referred to Montaigne's essay on cannibalism as an early example of ethnology. Lévi-Strauss aimed, through a structural method, at discovering universal invariants in human society, chief among which he believed to be the incest taboo. However, the claims of such cultural universalism have been criticized by various 19th and 20th century social thinkers, including Marx, Nietzsche, Foucault, Althusser and Deleuze.

The French school of ethnology was particularly significant for the development of the discipline since the early 1950s with Marcel Griaule, Germaine Dieterlen, Claude Lévi-Strauss and Jean Rouch.

Scholars

• List of scholars of ethnology

See also

• Anthropology
• Cultural Survival
• Culture
• Ethnocentrism
• Evolutionism
• Functionalism
• Indigenous Peoples
• Intangible Cultural Heritage
• Marxism
• Modernism
• Post-Modernism
• Postcolonial
• Primitive culture
• Primitivism
• Racism
• Society
• Structural anthropology

References

Bibliography

• Johann Georg Adam Forster Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty’s Sloop, Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years 1772, 3, 4, and 5 (2 vols), London (1777)
• Lévi-Strauss, Claude, The Elementary Structures of Kinship, (1949), Structural Anthropology (1958)
• Mauss, Marcel, originally published as Essai sur le don. Forme et raison de l'échange dans les sociétés archaïques in 1925, this classic text on gift economy appears in the English edition as The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies.
• Maybury-Lewis, David, Akwe-Shavante society. (1967), The Politics of Ethnicity: Indigenous Peoples in Latin American States (2003)[۱].
• Clastres, Pierre, Society Against the State (1974),
• Pop, Mihai and Glauco Sanga, Problemi generali dell'etnologia europea La Ricerca Folklorica, No. 1, La cultura popolare. Questioni teoriche (Apr., 1980), pp. 89–96

Websites relating to ethnology

• Languages describes the languages and ethnic groups found worldwide, grouped by host nation-state.
• Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History - Over 160,000 objects from Pacific, North American, African, Asian ethnographic collections with images and detailed description, linked to the original catalogue pages, field notebooks, and photographs are available online.
• National Museum of Ethnology - Osaka, Japan
• Turkish Ethnology Source (in Turkish)